CLASSIFICATION

OF DATA

DR. ANKITA CHATURVEDI

INTRODUCTION

After the data have been collected, the next step is to

present the data in some orderly and logical form so that
their essential features may become explicit. The
unorganised and shapeless data can neither be easily
competent nor interpreted.
“Classified and arranged facts speak themselves;
unarranged, unorganised they are dead as mutton”.
- Prof. J.R. Hicks

DR. ANKITA CHATURVEDI

CLASSIFICATION OF DATA
 “Classification is a process of arranging things or data in
groups or classes according to their resemblances and
affinities and gives expression to the unity of attributes that
may subsist amongst a diversity of individuals.”
 “Classification is the grouping of related facts into classes.”
 The Process of classification data are classified into various
homogenous groups or classes on the basis of similarities
and resemblances.
 Classification condenses the data by dropping out
unnecessary details. It facilitates comparison between
different sets of data clearly showing the different points of
agreement and disagreement. It enables us to study the
relationship between several characteristics and make
further statistical treatment like tabulation, etc.
DR. ANKITA CHATURVEDI
DEFINITIONS

“Classification is the process of arranging things in

groups according to their resemblances and affinities.”
-Connor
“Classification is the process of arranging data into
sequences and groups according to their common
characteristics or separating them into different but
related parts.”
- Secrist
“The process of grouping large number of individual facts
and observations on the basis of similarity among the
items is called classification.”
- Stockton & Clark

DR. ANKITA CHATURVEDI

CHARACTERICTICS OF
CLASSIFICATION
 Classification performs homogeneous
grouping of data
 It brings out points of similarity and
dissimilarities.
 The classification may be either real or
imaginary
 Classification is flexible to accommodate
adjustments

DR. ANKITA CHATURVEDI

OBJECTIVES OF
CLASSIFICATION
 To condense the mass of data in such a way that
their similarities and dissimilarities become
very clear.
 To facilitate comparisons i.e. , to make the data
comparable.
 To point out the most important features of the
data at a glance.
 To present the data in a brief form.
 To enable statistical treatment of the data
collected .
 To make data attractive and effective.
DR. ANKITA CHATURVEDI
METHODS OF
CLASSIFICATION
 GEOGRAPHICAL
CLASSIFICATION
 CHRONOLOGICAL
CLASSIFICATION
 QUALITATIVE CLASSIFICATION
 QUANTITATIVE
CLASSIFICATION
DR. ANKITA CHATURVEDI
GEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION

When the data is classified on the basis of

geographical or locational differences between the
various items, it is known as Geographical
Classification. E.g. area wise, zone wise, state wise,
etc.
e.g. NO. OF XYZ BANK BRANCHES IN JAIPUR IN 2018
STATE NO. OF FIRMS
NORTH ZONE 02
EAST ZONE 04
WEST ZONE 05
SOUTH ZONE
DR. ANKITA CHATURVEDI
03
CHRONOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION

When data is classified on the basis of time, it

is known as chronological classification. e.g.
Years, Month, Weeks, Days etc.

e.g. Sales of ABC LTD.

YEAR SALES(IN RS.

CRORES)
2014 36.1
2015 43.9

2016 54.8

2017 68.4

2018 84.4
DR. ANKITA CHATURVEDI
QUALITATIVE CLASSIFICATION

In this type of classification, data are

classified on the basis of some attribute or
quality such as sex, literacy, religion,
employment, etc.

This classification may be two types.

i) Simple classification
ii) Manifold classification

DR. ANKITA CHATURVEDI

DR. ANKITA CHATURVEDI
QUANTITATIVE CLASSIFICATION

Classification is said to be quantitative when the

data are expressed numerically. These types of
data are known as numerical data or quantitative
data. Height, weight, age, profit, turnover,
income, death etc. are some of examples of this
type of data.

INCOME(PER MONTH) NO. OF WORKERS

< 10000 15
10000- 15000 20
15000-20000 29
> 20000 10
DR. ANKITA CHATURVEDI
 VARIABLE

Any quantitative characteristic under study is known

as variable. Basically there are two types of
variables.
i. Discrete variable: A variable is said to be discrete
if it takes only countably many values (whole
numbers). For example: Number of buses, number
of persons, family size etc.
ii. Continuous variable: A variable is said to be
continuous if it takes all possible real values (whole
number as well as fractional values) within a certain
range. For example: heights, weights, temperature
records, marks obtained by students etc.
DR. ANKITA CHATURVEDI
FREQUENCY
DISTRIBUTION
The Frequency distribution is a statistical table
which shows the values of the variable arranged
in order of magnitude, either individually or in
groups. There are two types of frequency
distributions.
 Discrete frequency distribution
 Grouped frequency distribution

DR. ANKITA CHATURVEDI

 USEFUL TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH
GROUPED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

A. Class interval
B. Class frequency
C. Class limits
D. Mid Value
E. Width or Magnitude of the class
F. Frequency density = class frequency / width of
the class

DR. ANKITA CHATURVEDI

KINDS OF CONTINUOUS
SERIES

EXCLUSIVE
SERIES INCLUSIVE
SERIES

OPEN ENDED
SERIES CUMULATIVE
FREQUENCY
SERIES

DR. ANKITA CHATURVEDI

INCLUSIVE SERIES

 Inclusive series are those which includes the

upper limit of the class interval. E.g.

Marks No. of students

0-9 5
10-19 7
20-29 3
30-39 4
40-49 6

DR. ANKITA CHATURVEDI

EXCLUSIVE SERIES

 Exclusive series are those which excludes the

upper limit of the class interval. E.g.

Marks No. of students

0-10 5
10-20 7
20-30 3
30-40 4
40-50 6

DR. ANKITA CHATURVEDI

OPEN END CLASS INTERVAL
 When the lower limit of the first class-inteval or the upper
limit of the last class-interval, are not given then subtract the
class length of the next immediate class-interval from the
upper limit. This will give us the lower limit of the first class-
interval. Similarly add the same class length to the lower limit
of the last class-interval.

DR. ANKITA CHATURVEDI

CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY SERIES

 Cumulative frequency series is that series in which the

frequencies are continuously added corresponding to
each class-interval in the series.
 There are two types of cumulative frequency
distributions:
 Less than cumulative frequency distribution
 More than cumulative frequency distribution

DR. ANKITA CHATURVEDI

Less than cumulative
frequency distribution

 It is obtained by adding successively the

frequencies of all the previous classes including
the class against which it is written. The cumulate
is started from the lowest to the highest size.
Mark students Marks student
s s
0-10 2 Less than 10 2
10- 5 Less than 20 7
20 Less than 30 14
convert
20- 7
Less than 40 23
30
Less than 50 31
30- 9
40 Less than 60 34
DR. ANKITA CHATURVEDI

40- 8 Less than 70 40

50
More than cumulative frequency
distribution

 It is obtained by finding the cumulate total of frequencies

starting from the highest to the lowest class.

Mark students Marks student

s s
0-10 2 More than 0 40
10- 5 More than 10 38
20 More than 20 33
convert
20- 7
More than 30 26
30
More than 40 17
30- 9
40 More than 50 9
DR. ANKITA CHATURVEDI

40- 8 More than 60 6

50
 CODING
 Coding refers to the process of assigning
numerals or other symbols to answers so that
responses can be put into a limited number of
categories or classes. Such classes should be
appropriate to the research problem under
consideration. They must also possess the
characteristic of exhaustiveness (i.e., there must
be a class for every data item)
 Coding is necessary for efficient analysis and
through it the several replies may be reduced to
a small number of classes which contain the
critical information required for analysis.
 CODING
 Coding decisions should usually be taken at the
designing stage of the questionnaire. This makes
it possible to precode the questionnaire choices
and which in turn is helpful for computer
tabulation as one can straight forward key punch
from the original questionnaires. But in case of
hand coding some standard method may be used.
One such standard method is to code in the
margin with a coloured pencil. The other method
can be to transcribe the data from the
questionnaire to a coding sheet. Whatever
method is adopted, one should see that coding
errors are altogether eliminated or reduced to the
minimum level.
CODING SHEET EXAMPLE
 February 10, 2025
 Validity Final Defense Statement
 Reliability Raw Data
 Rdeliability Results if available
 Validated Questionnaire
 Validation Summary
 Ready to A
Validity of the Test Instrument
Calmorin (1994) as mentioned by Chavez (2002) defined content
validity as the extent to which the content of the test is truly
representative of the content of the course. To obtain the content
validity of the questionnaire on the factors on truancy of the pupils
of F. Barandiaran Elementary School, the researcher adopted the
criteria developed for evaluation survey set forth by Carter V. Good
and Douglas V. Scates.
The research instruments were presented to the jurors considered
experts in the field of education and guidance counseling. They
went over the research instrument item-by-item and judged the
suitability and appropriateness of the questions. Recommendations
or suggestions for improvement were taken into consideration by
the researcher. The validation of the research instrument on the
factors of truancy resulted to a mean score of 4.8, which means that
the research instrument is valid to a very high degree. On the other
hand, the validation of the research instrument on the teachers’
fidelity record resulted in a mean score of 5.0, which means that it is
valid to a high degree.
Furthermore, the talk conducted was referred to guidance
counselors.