Chapter 1

Introduction to
Research
 Lecture Sub-topics

Applied
Definitio 0 versus Basic
0
n 02 Theory and 3 Research
1
Research Information

Why
0 Examples More Examples of 0 Managers
Applied 0 Research Should Know
4 6
Research 5 Areas in Business About
Research

The External
0
Manager– 08 Internal Researcher
9
07 Researcher s
Researchers
Relationshi
p
 Definition
Research
Business Research: An
organized
and systematic inquiry
or investigation into a specific
problem, undertaken with the
purpose of finding answers or
solutions to it.
 Theory and Information

• Theory and information play an important role in research.

• The term ‘theory’ can mean a lot of things, depending on

whom
you ask:
– an idea or hunch that someone has;

– any concept, instrument, model, or framework that

helps one to think about or solve a problem,
describe a phenomenon, or understand a topic of
interest.
• To a scientist, a theory explains a certain phenomenon.
 Applied versus Basic
Research

• Basic generatesa body of knowledge

research: by
trying to comprehend how certain problems
that occur in organizations can be solved.

• Applied solves a current problem faced

research: by
the manager in the work setting, demanding a
timely solution.
 Examples Applied Research

• Apple’s iPod fueled the company’s success in recent

years, helping to increase sales from $5 billion in 2001
to $32 billion in the fiscal year 2008. Growth for the
music player averaged more than 200% in 2006 and
2007, before falling to 6% in 2008. Some analysts believe
that the number of iPods sold will drop 12% in 2009.
“The reality is there’s a limited group of people who
want an iPod or any other portable media player,” one
analyst says. “So the question becomes, what will
Apple do about it?”
 Examples Applied Research

• Globally, colas account for more than fifty per cent of all sodas sold. The
challenge for the soft drink industry is giving consumers in developed
markets the sugary taste they want without giving them the mouthful of
calories they don’t. Concerns about obesity and health have led to nine
years of falling U.S. soda consumption. The soda giants can’t rely on
existing diet versions of their namesake colas, as consumers are shying
away from the artificial sweeteners they contain. Critics have blamed the
ingredients for everything from weight gain to cancer. Diet Coke is losing
U.S. sales at 7 percent a year, almost double the rate of decline of
American cola sales overall. So Coke and Pepsi are turning to research to
save their cola businesses, which take in about two-thirds of the industry’s
U.S. sales. “If you can crack the perfect sweetener, that would be huge,”
says Howard Telford, an analyst at researcher Euromonitor International.
 More Examples of Research Areas in Business

• Absenteeism

• Communication

• Motivation

• Consumer decision
making
• Customer satisfaction

• Budget allocations

• Accounting procedures
 Why Managers Should Know About Research

• Being knowledgeable about research and research methods helps

professional managers to:
– Identify and effectively solve minor problems in the work setting.

– Know how to discriminate good from bad research.

– Appreciate the multiple influences and effects of factors impinging

on a situation.
– Take calculated risks in decision making.

– Prevent possible vested interests from exercising their

influence in a situation.
– Relate to hired researchers and consultants more effectively.

– Combine experience with scientific knowledge while making decisions.

 The Manager–Researcher Relationship

• Each should know his/her role

• Trust levels

• Value system

• Acceptance of findings and

implementation
outsid
• Issues of inside e
versus researchers/consultants
 Internal Researchers

• Advantages:

– Better acceptance from staff

– Knowledge about organization

– Would be an integral part of implementation and

evaluation of the research recommendations.
• Disadvantages

– Less fresh ideas

– Power politics could prevail

– Possibly not valued as “expert” by staff

 External Researchers

• Advantages

– Divergent and convergent thinking

– Experience from several situations in different

organizations
– Better technical training, usually

• Disadvantages

– Takes time to know and understand the organization

– Rapport and cooperation from staff not easy

– Not available for evaluation and implementation

– Costs
 Chapter
2
The Scientific Approach and
Alternative Approaches to
Investigation
 Lecture Sub-topics

0 Deduction
Hallmarks of Hypothetico-
0 0 3 and
Scientific Deductive
1 2 Induction
Research Research

Alternative
0 Approaches to What 0 Positivis 0 Constructionis
4 Makes Good 5 m 6 m
Research

07 Critical 08
Realism Pragmatism
 Hallmarks of Scientific
Research

• Hallmarks or main
distinguishing
characteristics of scientific research:
− Purposiveness
− Rigor
− Testability
− Replicability
− Precision and Confidence
− Objectivity
− Generalizability
− Parsimony
 Hypothetico-Deductive Research

• The Seven-Step Process in the Hypothetico-Deductive

Method
– Identify a broad problem area

– Define the problem statement

– Develop hypotheses

– Determine measures

– Data collection

– Data analysis

– Interpretation of data
 Deduction and Induction

• Deductive reasoning: application of a general theory to a

specific case.
– Hypothesis testing

• Inductive reasoning: a process where we observe

specific phenomena and on this basis arrive at general
conclusions.
– Counting white swans

• Both inductive and deductive processes are often used

in
research.
 Alternative Approaches to What Makes Good
Research

• Positivism

• Constructionism

• The middle
ground:
– Critical realism

– Pragmatism
 Positivism

• Scientific research is the way to get to the

truth

• Rigour replicability, reliability,

and
and
generalizabilit

• y
Key approach:
experiment
 Constructionism

• The world as we know it is fundamentally mental

• Aim to understand the rules people use to make

sense of the world

• Research methods are often qualitative in nature

 Critical Realism

• There is an external reality but we cannot

always objectively measure this external reality
• The critical realist is critical of our ability
to understand the world with certainty
• Triangulation across multiple methods,
observations, and researchers help get a
better idea of what is happening around us.
 Pragmatism

• Do not take a particular position on what makes

good research
• Research on both objective and subjective
phenomena can produce useful knowledge
• Relationship between theory and practice

• Purpose of theory is to inform practice

 Chapter 3

Defining and Refining the

Problem
 Lecture Sub-topics

The Broad
First Steps 02 0
0 Problem
Research Problem 3
1 Area
Process

From Problem to Preliminary

0 Symptoms 0 0 Informatio
versus Problems Feasible Research
4 5 6 n
Topic
Gathering

First Review What Makes a A Good

0 0 0
of the Good Problem
7 8 9
Literature Problem Statement
Statement?
 Lecture Sub-topics

A Good Good
1 Exampl 1 1 Problem
Problem
0 e 1 2 Statement
Statement

1 Basic Types 1 The Research Research

1
3 of Questions 4 Proposal Proposal
5
Contains (1)

Research
1
Proposal
6
Contains (2)
 First Steps Research Process

FIGURE 3.1
Three important first steps in the research process:

Step 1 Step 2
Step 3

Identification of
the Broad Preliminary Definition of the
Management Research Research Problem
Problem
 Problem

• Problem: any situation where a gap

exists between an actual and a desired
ideal state.
 The Broad Problem Area

• Examples of broad problem areas that a manager could

observe at the workplace:
– Training programs are not as effective as anticipated.

– The sales volume of a product is not picking up.

– Minority group members are not advancing in their

careers.
– The newly installed information system is not being
used by the managers for whom it was primarily
designed.
– The introduction of flexible work hours has
created more
 Symptoms versus Problems

• It is important that symptoms of problems are

not defined as the real problem.
• One way of determining that the problem,
rather than the symptom, is being addressed is
a technique called ‘5 Whys’ or ‘5 times why’.
• This approach will help you to get to the root
cause (the most basic cause) of a problem.
 Symptoms versus Problems

• Keep asking “Why?” until the most basic cause is

arrived at.
• Example: My best employees are leaving the
– Why They are not satisfied with their jobs.
organization.
?
They don’t find a challenge in their
– Why
? jobs. They don’t have control over

– Why their work.

?
executing,
Theyand evaluating
don’t their influence
have enough work.
– over planning,
– Why
Why? We have been reluctant to
?
delegate.
 From Problem to Feasible Research Topic

• We need to transform the broad problem into

a feasible topic for research by:

a) making it more specific and precise;

b)setting clear boundaries;

c) selecting a perspective from which we

investigate the subject (Machi and McEvoy,
2012).
• Preliminary research will help us to make
these
 Preliminary Information Gathering

• Nature of information to be gathered:

1.Information on the organization

and its environment – that is, the
contextual factors.

2.Information on the topic of interest.

 First Review of the Literature

• Helps the researcher to:

− Structure research on work already done

− Develop problem statement with

precision and clarity

• Is beneficial in both basic and applied

research projects
 What Makes a Good Problem
Statement?

• Good problem statement includes

both:

− The research objective

− Research questions
 A Good Problem Statement

• Research objective: why of the research

• Research objective applied research:
− to solve a specific problem in a work setting;
− to change something.
• Example:
− To determine factors that increase
employee
commitment to the organization;
• Allows manager to increase commitment and
hence to decrease turnover, absenteeism
and increase performance levels.
 Example

The purpose of this study is twofold:

1.to identify the factors that

influence the passenger’s waiting
experience and

2.to investigate the possible impact of

waiting on customer satisfaction and
service evaluations.
 A Good Problem Statement
• Research questions:
− what of the research (what do you want to learn?)
− Translates problem into a specific need for information

• Research questions:
− Are related to the objective
− If objective is unclear we will not be able to formulate research
questions

• Example:
− What are the factors that affect the perceived waiting
experience of airline
passengers
− To what extent do these factors affect the perception of waiting
times?
− What are the affective consequences of waiting
− How does affect mediate the relationship between waiting and
service
evaluations?
− How do situational variables(such as filled
 Good Problem Statement

• Relevant

− for the organization

• Feasible

− you are able to answer the

research questions within the restrictions of
the research project.
• Interesting

− to you!
 Basic Types of
Questions

• Explorator
y
• Descriptiv
e
• Causal
 Basic Types of Questions

• Exploratory questions:

− not much is known about the situation at

hand, or no information is available on
how similar problems or research issues
have been solved in the past.
• Example:

− A service provider wants to know why his

customers are switching to other service providers?
 Basic Types of Questions

• Descriptive questions:

− Enable the researcher to describe the characteristics

of the variables of interest in a situation.
• Example:

− What is the profile of the individuals who have loan

payments outstanding for 6 months and more?

− The profile would include details of their average age,

earnings, nature of occupation, full-time/part-time
employment status, and the like. This might help him to
elicit further information or decide right away on the types
of individuals who should be made ineligible for loans in
the future.
 Basic Types of Questions

• Causal questions:

− Delineating one or more factors that are

causing a problem.

• Example:

− Will the sales of product X increase if we

increase the advertising budget?
 The Research Proposal

• The research proposal drawn up by the

investigator is the result of a planned, organized,
and careful effort.
 Research Proposal Contains (1)

• Working title.

• Background of the study.

• The problem statement.

− The purpose of the

study.

− Research questions.
• The scope of the study.

• The relevance of the

study
 Research Proposal Contains (2)

• The research design offering details

on:

a. Type of study

b. Data collection methods

c. The sampling design.

d. Data analysis.

• Time frame of the study

• Budget

• Selected bibliography.
 Chapter 4

The Critical Literature Review

 Lecture Sub-topics

Critical Literature Functions Literature 03 Data Sources

01 02 Review
Review

Evaluating the Documenting the

04 Searching for Literature 05 06
Literature Literature Review

Common Forms
07
of Plagiarism
 Critical Literature Review

A literature review is “the selection of available

documents (both published and unpublished) on the
topic, which contain information, ideas, data and
evidence written from a particular standpoint to fulfill
certain aims or express certain views on the nature of
the topic and how it is to be investigated, and the
effective evaluation of these documents in relation to
the research being proposed” (Hart, 1998, p. 13).
 Functions Literature Review

In general, a literature review ensures that:

1. The research effort is positioned relative to existing knowledge and builds on

this knowledge.

2. You can look at a problem from a specific angle.

3. You do not run the risk of “reinventing the wheel”;

4. You are able to introduce relevant terminology and to define key terms used
in your writing.

5. You obtain useful insights of the research methods others have used to
provide an answer to similar research questions.

6. The research effort can be contextualized in a wider academic debate.

 Functions Literature Review

Some of the functions of a critical literature review depend on the type of study and
the specific research approach that is taken.
– In a descriptive study it may help you to come up with a comprehensive
overview of the relevant perspectives on the topic, a guiding
definition, and an in-depth overview of frameworks, instruments, and
analytical tools that will help you to describe something.
– In a project that is inductive and exploratory in nature, it may help
you to develop a theoretical background, which provides an overview of
the key literature pertinent to your specific topic
 Functions Literature Review

• In a deductive study, a review of the literature will allow you to develop a

theoretical background. This may help you to obtain a clear idea as
to what variables will be important to consider in his theoretical
framework, why they are considered important, how they are
related to each other, and how they should be measured to solve the
problem. A critical review of the literature may also help you to
provide arguments for the relationships between the variables in
your conceptual causal model and to develop hypotheses.
 Data Sources

• Textbooks

• Academic and professional journals

• Theses

• Conference proceedings

• Unpublished manuscripts

• Reports of government departments and corporations

• Newspapers

• The Internet
 Searching for Literature

• Most libraries have the following electronic resources at their

disposal:

− Electronic journals

− Full-text databases

− Bibliographic databases

− Abstract databases
 Evaluating the Literature

• Titles

• Abstract

• Table of contents/first chapter book

• Number of citations
 Documenting the Literature Review

• Literature review introduces

− Subject study

− Highlights the problem

− Summarizes work done so

far
 Common Forms of Plagiarism

Sources not cited

1. “The Ghost Writer”

2. “The Photocopy”

3. “The Potluck Paper”

4. “The Poor Disguise”

5. “The Labor of Laziness”

6. “The Self-Stealer”

Reprinted with permission from: What is Plagiarism? (n.d.), retrieved June 22, 2011, from
http://www.plagiarism.org/learning_center/what_is_plagiarism.html.
 Common Forms of Plagiarism

Sources cited (but still plagiarized)

1. “The Forgotten Footnote”

2. “The Misinformer”

3. “The Too-Perfect Paraphrase”

4. “The Resourceful Citer”

5. “The Perfect Crime”

Reprinted with permission from: What is Plagiarism? (n.d.), retrieved June 22, 2011, from
http://www.plagiarism.org/learning_center/what_is_plagiarism.html.
 Chapter 5

Theoretical Framework & Hypothesis

Development
 Lecture Sub-topics

(In)dependent
Theoretical 03 Variables
01 Framework 02 Variable

04 Example 05 Moderators 06 Mediating Variable

07 Hypothesis 08 Exercise 09 Argumentation

 Theoretical Framework

• Foundation deductive research project!

• Deductive research: moving from the general

(a theory) to the specific (observations).
 Theoretical Framework

• A theoretical framework represents your beliefs on how

certain phenomena (or variables or concepts) are related to
each other (a model) and an explanation on why you believe
that these variables are associated to each other (a theory).
 Theoretical Framework

• Basic steps:

− Identify and label the variables correctly

− State the relationships among the variables:

formulate
hypotheses

− Explain how or why you expect these relationships

 Variable

• Any concept or construct that varies or changes in value

Main types of variables:
– Dependent variable

– Independent variable

– Moderating variable

– Mediating variable
 (In)dependent Variables

• Dependent variable (DV)

− Is of primary interest to the researcher. The goal of the

research project is to understand, predict or explain the
variability of this variable.
• Independent variable (IV)

− Influences the DV in either positive or negative way. The

variance in the DV is accounted for by the IV.
Example
 Moderators

• Mediating variable
• Example
− Moderator is
qualitative (e.g.,
gender, race, class) or
quantitative (e.g., level
of reward) variable that
affects the direction
and/or strength of
relation between
independent and
dependent variable.
 Mediating Variable

• Mediating variable
− surfaces between the time the independent variables start
operating to influence the dependent variable and the time
their impact is felt on it.

• Example
 Hypothesis

• A proposition that is empirically testable. It is an empirical statement

concerned with the relationship among variables.
• Good hypothesis:

− Must be adequate for its purpose

− Must be testable

− Must be better than its rivals

• Can be:

− Directional

− Non-directional
 Exercise

Give the hypotheses for the following framework:

Service Customer
quality switching

Switching
cost
 Exercise

Give the hypotheses for the following framework:

Service Customer Customer

quality satisfaction switching
 Argumentation

• The expected relationships / hypotheses are an integration

of:

− Exploratory research

− Common sense and logical reasoning

 Chapter 6

Elements of Research Design

 Lecture Sub-topics

Extent of Researcher
01 Research Design 02 Research Strategies 03 Interference

Population to 06 Time Horizon

04 Study Setting 05 be Studied

07 Mixed Methods Research

 Research Design

• Research Design: a blueprint or plan for the collection,

measurement, and analysis of data, created to answer your
research questions.
Research Design
 Research Design

• As shown in Figure 6.1, each component of the research

design offers several critical choice points.
• No design is superior in all circumstances. Instead, you need
to make choices and create a design that is suitable for the
job at hand.
• Take into consideration the specific objectives, research
questions, and constraints of the project, such as access to
data, time, and/or money.
 Research Strategies

• Experiments

• Survey Research

• Ethnography

• Case studies

• Grounded theory

• Action research
 Extent of Researcher Interference

• Minimal interference

• Moderate interference

• Excessive interference
 Study Setting

• Contrived: artificial setting

• Non-contrived: the natural environment where

work proceeds normally
 Population to be Studied

• Unit of analysis:

– Individuals

– Dyads

– Groups

– Organizations

– Cultures
 Time Horizon

• Cross-sectional studies

– Snapshot of constructs at a single point in time

– Use of representative sample

• Multiple cross-sectional studies

– Constructs measured at multiple points in time

– Use of different sample

• Longitudinal studies

– Constructs measured at multiple points in time

– Use of same sample = a true panel

 Mixed Methods Research

• Aims to answer research questions that cannot be answered by ‘qualitative’ or

‘quantitative’ approaches alone.
• Focuses on collecting, analyzing, and mixing both quantitative and qualitative
data.
• Is increasingly advocated within business research.
• Allows researchers to combine inductive and deductive thinking, to use more
than one research method to address the research problem, and to solve this
problem using different types of data.
• Complicates the research design and therefore requires a clear presentation of
the design to allow the reader to sort out the different components of the
research design.
 Video Case Study

What makes a good life? Lessons from the longest

study on happiness
• TEDxBeaconStreet | November 2015 | 12:39
• https://www.ted.com/talks/robert_waldinger_what_makes_a_good_life_lessons_f
rom_the_longest_study_on_happiness
• What keeps us happy and healthy as we go through life? If you think it's fame and
money, you're not alone – but, according to psychiatrist Robert Waldinger, you're
mistaken. As the director of a 75-year-old study on adult development, Waldinger
has unprecedented access to data on true happiness and satisfaction. In this talk,
he shares three important lessons learned from the study as well as some
practical, old-as-the-hills wisdom on how to build a fulfilling, long life.
• Robert Waldinger is the Director of the Harvard Study of Adult Development, one
of the most comprehensive longitudinal studies in history.
 Chapter 7

Data Collection Methods:

Introduction and Interviews
 Lecture Sub-topics

Primary Data 02 Interviews 03 Personal Interview

01 Collection

04 Telephone Interview 05 Self-administered 06 Group Interviews

 Primary Data Collection

• Primary data collection methods: ways in which data collected from original
sources for the specific purpose of the study can be gathered.
• Business is largely a social phenomenon. Much of the information needed to
make decisions in the work setting has to come from people. That is why the
survey strategy is very popular in business research. The three main data
collection methods in survey research are interviews, observation, and
questionnaires.
• A thorough knowledge of these methods will help you to evaluate alternative
approaches to primary data collection. Problems researched with the use of
appropriate methods greatly enhance the value of the study.
 Interviews

• An interview is a guided, purposeful conversation between two or more people.

• Unstructured interviews:
– the interviewer does not enter the interview setting with a planned sequence
of questions to be asked of the respondent.
• Structured interviews:
– Conducted when it is known at the outset what information is needed.

– The interviewer has a list of predetermined questions to be asked of the

respondents either personally, through the telephone, or via the computer.
 Personal Interview

• Advantages
– Can clarify doubts about questionnaire
– Can pick up non-verbal cues
– Relatively high response/cooperation
– Special visual aids and scoring devises can be used
• Disadvantages
– High costs and time intensive
– Geographical limitations
– Response bias / Confidentiality difficult to be assured
– Some respondents are unwilling to talk to strangers
– Trained interviewers
 Telephone Interview

• Advantages

– Discomfort of face to face is avoided

– Faster / Number of calls per day could be high

– Lower cost

• Disadvantages

– Interview length must be limited

– Low response rate

– No facial expressions
 Self-administered

• Advantages
– Lowest cost option
– Expanded geographical coverage
– Requires minimal staff
– Perceived as more anonymous

• Disadvantages
– Low response rate in some modes
– No interviewer intervention possible for clarification
– Cannot be too long or complex
– Incomplete surveys
 Group Interviews

• Focus groups consist typically of eight to ten members with a

moderator leading the discussions on a particular topic,
concept, or product.
• Focus group research is a generic term for any research that
studies how groups of people talk about a clearly defined
issue. An expert panel is a group of people specifically
convened by the researcher to elicit expert knowledge and
opinion about a certain issue.
 Video Example

• Conducting a Focus Group (5:36)

• A 5 min tutorial video that gives you an example of good and

bad Focus Group.

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Auf9pkuCc8k
 Video Example

• FAO Expert Panel plays a significant role in the decision

making of CITES (1:46)

• The specialist knowledge on marine species from the @FAO

expert panel is of significance to the decision making of
@CITES- Alastair Macfarlane @MacfarlaneAG, the chair of the
6th @FAO expert panel.

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WAH7I8SVFPk
 Chapter 8

Observation
 Lecture Sub-topics

Key Dimensions
Observation 02 Examples 03 Characterizing Type of
01
Observation

Structured
04 Participant Observation 05 What to Observe? 06
Observation

07 Coding Schemes 08 Standard Coding Schemes

 Observation

Observation involves going into ‘the field’, - the factory, the

supermarket, the waiting room, the office, or the trading room -
watching what workers, consumers, or day traders do, and
describing, analyzing, and interpreting what one has seen.
 Examples

• Shadowing a Wall Street broker engaged in his daily routine.

• Observing in-store shopping behavior of consumers via a camera.

• Sitting in the corner of an office to observe how a merchant bank trader

operates.
• Working in a plant to study factory life.

• Studying the approach skills of sales people disguised as a shopper.

 Key Dimensions Characterizing Type of Observation

• Controlled versus Uncontrolled Observational Studies

• Participant versus Non-Participant Observation

• Structured versus Unstructured Observational Studies

• Concealed versus Unconcealed observation

 Participant Observation

• The participatory aspect:

– Passive participation

– Moderate participation

– Active participation

• To what extent should I participate?

 Participant Observation

• The observation aspect

– Obtaining permission

– Finding a ‘sponsor’

– Establishing rapport
 What to Observe?

• Descriptive observation stage:

– Space

– Objects

– Actors

– Feelings

– Events
 What to Observe?

• Focused and selective observation stage:

– Look for a story line

– Sort out regular from irregular activities

– Look for variation in the storyline

– Look for negative cases or exceptions

– Develop a plan for systematic observation if needed

 Structured Observation

• Looks selectively at predetermined phenomena

• Different levels of structure

 Video Example

• Structured Observation (1:48)

• Short clip showing a structured observation of a family at

Maudsley Hospital.

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VgTpAoJEXaE
 Coding Schemes

• Focus

• Objective

• Ease of use

• Mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive

 Standard Coding Schemes

• Simple checklist

• Sequence record

• Sequence record on time scale

 Chapter 9

Data Collection Methods: Questionnaires

 Lecture Sub-topics

Questionnaires 02 Questionnaire Design 03 Questionnaire Content

01

04 Response Format 05 Question Wording 06 Question Sequence

07 Cover Letter
 Questionnaires
Table 9.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Questionnaires
Mode of data collection Advantages Disadvantages

Can establish rapport and motivate respondent.

Doubts can be clarified.
Personally administered Explanations may introduce a bias.
Less expensive when administered to groups of respondents.
questionnaires Take time and effort.
Almost 100% response rate ensured.
Anonymity of respondent is high.

Anonymity is high.
Wide geographic regions can be reached. Response rate is almost always low. A 30% rate is quite
Token gifts can be enclosed to seek compliance. acceptable.
Mail questionnaires Old-fashioned and obsolete. Cannot clarify questions.
Respondent can take more time to respond at convenience. Can Follow-up procedures for nonresponses are necessary.
be administered electronically, if desired.

Easy to administer.
Computer literacy is a must.
Can reach globally.
Sampling issues.
Easy to access specific target groups.
High non-response.
Very inexpensive.
Electronic questionnaires Not always possible to
Fast delivery. generalize findings.
Respondents can answer at their convenience like the mail Respondent must be willing
questionnaire. to complete the survey.
Automatic processing of answers. People find invitations via e-mail rude and offensive; mails
are deleted or people complain.
 Questionnaire Design

• Definition: A questionnaire is a pre-formulated, written set of questions

to which the respondent records his answers

• Steps

1. Determine the content of the questionnaire

2. Determine the form of response

3. Determine the wording of the questions

4. Determine the question sequence

5. Write cover letter

 1. Questionnaire Content

• Framework: need information for all constructs in framework

• Measurement: Operationalizing

– Objective construct:
 1 element/items
=> 1 question
– Subjective
construct:
 multiple
elements/items
=> multiple
questions
 2. Response Format

• Closed vs. Open-ended questions

– Closed questions

 Helps respondents to make quick decisions

 Helps researchers to code

– Open-ended question

 First: unbiased point of view

 Final: additional insights

 Complementary to closed question: for interpretation purpose

 3. Question Wording

• Avoid double-barreled questions • Avoid leading or biasing questions

– Did you find the course useful and – Do you avoid use of masks when it is

reliable? compulsory in the campus?

• Avoid ambiguous questions and • Social desirability

words
– Do you think we should fire long timers
– Did you find the website
fast? from the company?

• Use of ordinary words • Avoid recall depended questions

– To what extent do you feel serendipity – When did you last smoke XYZ cigarette?

plays role in the pursuit of happiness?

 Question Wording

• Use positive and negative statements (reverse coding)

– Dresdner delivers high quality banking service

– Dresdner has poor customer operational support

– Avoid double negatives

• Limit the length of the questions

Rules of thumb:

− < 20 words

− < one full line in print

 Video Examples

• Leading Questions - Yes Prime Minister

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G0ZZJXw4MTA

• Question Wording
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eFzGdQrr2K8
 4. Question Sequence

Personal and sensitive data at the end

 5. Cover Letter

• The cover letter is the introductory page of the questionnaire

• It includes:

– Identification of the researcher

– Motivation for respondents to fill it in

– Confidentiality

– Thanking of the respondent

Research Methodology
 Chapter 10

Experimental Designs
 Lecture Sub-topics

Causal Research 02 Evidence for Causality 03 Experiment

01

Exogenous Related to
04 Manipulation of IV 05 Variables 06
Participants

04 Related to 05 Experimental Design 06 Exercise

Other Factors

Compared to field experiments,

04 Validity 05 lab experiments have the following
 Video Case Study

• Experimental Design – Psychology (3:19)

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wvd-oqAeBLA
 Causal Research

• Research conducted to identify cause-and-effect

relationships among variables when the research has already
been narrowly defined
 Evidence for Causality

• Covariation
– Evidence of the extent to which X and Y occur together or vary together in
the way predicted by the hypothesis
• Time order of occurrence of variable
– Evidence that shows X occurs before Y

• Elimination of other possible causal factors

– Evidence that allows the elimination
of factors other than X as the cause of
Y
• A logical explanation
– About why the independent variable
affects the dependent variable.
 Experiment

• Data collection method in which one or more IVs are

manipulated in order to measure their effect on a DV, while
controlling for exogenous variables in order to test a
hypothesis

• Cause and effect relationship is established by

– Manipulation of independent variable

– Controlling for exogenous factors

Experimental Design
Experimental Design
 Manipulation of IV

• Manipulation

– Creation of different levels of the IV to assess the impact on the DV

• Treatment levels

– The arbitrary or natural groups a researcher makes within the IV

• Evidence for causality

– Covariation (difference between groups)

– Time order control

 Exogenous Variables

• Controlling for exogenous/confounding variables

– Eliminating other possible causal factors

– Eliminating alternative explanations

• Experimental designs available

• Two types of exogenous variables

– Related to participants

– Related other, environmental factors

 Related to Participants

• Selection bias: improper assignment of participants to the experimental groups

– Matched groups: Match the different groups as closely as possible in terms of
age, interest, expertise etc.
– Random assignment: Randomly assign members to different treatment
groups. The differences will be randomly distributed. Systematic
bias will reduce.
– Statistical control: Measuring the external variables and adjusting for their
effect through statistical methods
• Mortality: Loss of participants during the experiment
 Related to Other Factors

• History effects: External events occurring at the same time that may
affect the DV
• Maturation effects: Changes in the participants as a passage of time that
may affect the DV
• Testing effects: The experiment itself affect the responses

– Main testing effect: prior responses affect later responses

– Interactive testing effect: prior responses affect perception of IV

• Instrumentation effects: Changes in measuring instrument

Experimental Designs
Experimental Design
 Solomon Four Group Design

• Solomon Four Group Design (4:05)

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7RRVW4iO7gA
Experimental Design
 Validity

• Internal validity

– Determination of whether the effect is actually caused by

the manipulation of treatments and not by
other, exogenous variables
• External validity

– Determination of whether the cause-and-effect

relationships found in the experiment can be
generalized
 Compared to field experiments,
lab experiments have the following

• Advantages

– High degree of control

– High internal validity / replication

– Less costly and less expensive

• Disadvantages

– Artificiality => reactive error

– Demand artifacts

– Lower external validity

Experimental Design
 Chapter 11

Measurement of Variables: Operational

Definition
 Lecture Sub-topics

(Characteristics Types of
01 Measurement 02 03 Variables
of) Objects

04 Operationalizing 05 Example
Concepts
 Measurement

Measurement: the assignment of numbers or other symbols to

characteristics (or attributes) of objects according to a pre-
specified set of rules.
 (Characteristics of) Objects

• Objects include persons, strategic business units, companies,

countries, kitchen appliances, restaurants, shampoo, yogurt
and so on.
• Examples of characteristics of objects are arousal seeking
tendency, achievement motivation, organizational
effectiveness, shopping enjoyment, length, weight, ethnic
diversity, service quality, conditioning effects and taste.
 Types of Variables

• Two types of variables:

– One lends itself to objective and precise measurement;

– The other is more nebulous and does not lend itself to

accurate measurement because of its
abstract and subjective nature.
 Operationalizing Concepts

• Operationalizing concepts: reduction of abstract concepts to

render them measurable in a tangible way.

• Operationalizing is done by looking at the

behavioral dimensions, facets, or properties denoted by the
concept.
Example

© 2012 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

www.wiley.com/college/sekaran
 Chapter 12

Measurement of Variables:
Scaling, Reliability, Validity
 Lecture Sub-topics

Scale 02
Four Types 03 Nominal
01 of Scales Scale

Ordinal Scale 06 Ratio Scale

04 05 Interval Scale

Ordinal Scale or 08
Properties of 09 Goodness of
07 Interval Scale? the Four Scales Measures

Validity 12 Stability
10 11 Reliability

13 Internal Consistency
 Scale

• Measurement means gathering data in the form of numbers.

• To be able to assign numbers to attributes of objects we need

a scale: a tool or mechanism by which individuals are
distinguished as to how they differ from one another on the
variables of interest to our study.
 Four Types of Scales

• There are four basic types of scales: nominal, ordinal,

interval, and ratio.

• The degree of sophistication to which the scales are fine-

tuned increases progressively as we move from the nominal
to the ratio scale.
 Nominal Scale
• A nominal scale is one that allows the researcher to assign
subjects to certain categories or groups.

• What is your department?

O Marketing O Maintenance O Finance
O Production O Servicing O Personnel
O Sales O Public Relations O Accounting

• What is your gender?

O Male
O Female
Nominal Scale
 Ordinal Scale

• Ordinal scale: not only categorizes variables in such a way as to denote

differences among various categories, it also rank-orders categories
in some meaningful way.
• What is the highest level of education you have completed?
– Less than High School

– High School/GED Equivalent

– College Degree

– Masters Degree

– Doctoral Degree
Ordinal Scale
 Interval Scale

• In an interval scale, or equal interval scale, numerically equal

distances on the scale represent equal values in the
characteristics being measured.
• Allows us to compare differences between objects: The
difference between any two values on the scale is identical to
the difference between any two other neighboring values of
the scale.
Interval Scale
 Interval Scale

• The clinical thermometer is a good example of an interval-

scaled instrument; it has an arbitrary origin and the
magnitude of the difference between 98.6 degrees (the
normal body temperature) and 99.6 degrees is the same as
the magnitude of the difference between 104 and 105
degrees.
 Ratio Scale

• Ratio scale: overcomes the disadvantage of the arbitrary

origin point of the interval scale, in that it has an absolute (in
contrast to an arbitrary) zero point, which is a meaningful
measurement point.

• What is your age?

Ratio Scale
 Ordinal Scale or Interval Scale?
• Circle the number that represents your feelings at this particular moment
best. There are no right or wrong answers. Please answer every question.

1. I invest more in my work than I get out of it

I disagree completely 1 2 3 4 5 I agree completely

2. I exert myself too much considering what I get back in return

I disagree completely 1 2 3 4 5 I agree completely

3. For the efforts I put into the organization, I get much in return

I disagree completely 1 2 3 4 5 I agree completely

Properties of the Four Scales
Goodness of Measures
Types of Validity
 Reliability

• Reliability of measure indicates extent to which it is without

bias and hence ensures consistent measurement across time
(stability) and across the various items in the instrument
(internal consistency).
 Stability

• Stability: ability of a measure to remain the same over time,

despite uncontrollable testing conditions or the state of the
respondents themselves.
– Test–Retest Reliability: The reliability coefficient obtained
with a repetition of the same measure on a
second occasion.
– Parallel-Form Reliability: Responses on two comparable
sets of measures tapping the same construct are
highly correlated.
 Internal Consistency

• Internal Consistency of Measures is indicative of the homogeneity of the

items in the measure that tap the construct.
– Interitem Consistency Reliability: This is a test of the consistency of
respondents’ answers to all the items in a measure. The most
popular test of interitem consistency reliability is the Cronbach’s
coefficient alpha.
– Split-Half Reliability: Split-half reliability reflects the correlations
between two halves of an instrument.
 Chapter 13

Quantitative Data Analysis

 Lecture Sub-topics

Getting the Data 03 Transforming Data

01 Ready for Analysis 02 Editing Data

Descriptive Statistics:
Getting a Feel 06 Central Tendencies and
04 for the Data 05 Frequencies
Dispersions

07 Reliability Analysis
 Getting the Data Ready for Analysis

• Data coding: assigning a number to the participants’

responses so they can be entered into a database.

• Data Entry: after responses have been coded, they can be

entered into a database. Raw data can be entered through
any software program (e.g., SPSS)
 Editing Data

• An example of an illogical response is an outlier response. An outlier is an

observation that is substantially different from the other observations.

• Inconsistent responses are responses that are not in harmony with other
information.

• Illegal codes are values that are not specified in the coding instructions.
 Transforming Data

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TLUlyXt8R_c
Getting a Feel for the Data
Frequencies
Descriptive Statistics: Central
Tendencies and Dispersions
Reliability Analysis
 Chapter 14

Quantitative Data Analysis:

Hypothesis Testing
 Lecture Sub-topics

Type I Errors, Type II Choosing the

Errors and Statistical 03 Testing Hypotheses on a
01 02 Appropriate Statistical Single Mean
Power Technique

Testing Hypotheses Testing Hypotheses

about Two Related 06 Testing Hypotheses
04 05 about Two Unrelated about Several Means
Means – 1 & 2 Means

Regression Analysis 09 Simple Linear Regression

07 08 Scatter Plot

Ordinary Least 11 SPSS 12 Model Validation

10 Squares Estimation
 Lecture Sub-topics

Measure of Overall Fit: 15 SPSS

13 SPSS 14
R2

Model Significance 18 Parameter Significance

16 17 SPSS

SPSS cont’d 21 Multiple Regression

19 20 Conceptual Model Analysis

Conceptual Model 23 Moderators 24 Coefficients

22
 Lecture Sub-topics

Mediating/ intervening 27 Step 1, 2 & 3

25 Conceptual Model 26
Variable
 Type I Errors, Type II Errors and Statistical Power

• Type I error (): the probability of rejecting the null

hypothesis when it is actually true.
• Type II error (): the probability of failing to reject the null
hypothesis given that the alternative hypothesis is actually
true.
• Statistical power (1 - ): the probability of correctly rejecting
the null hypothesis.
Choosing the Appropriate
Statistical Technique
 Testing Hypotheses on a Single Mean

• One sample t-test: statistical technique that is used to test the

hypothesis that the mean of the population from which a
sample is drawn is equal to a comparison standard.
 Testing Hypotheses about Two Related Means

• Paired samples t-test: examines differences in same group

before and after a treatment.
• The Wilcoxon signed-rank test: a non-parametric test for
examining significant differences between two related
samples or repeated measurements on a single sample. Used
as an alternative for a paired samples t-test when the
population cannot be assumed to be normally distributed.
 Testing Hypotheses about Two Related Means – 2

• McNemar's test: non-parametric method used on nominal

data. It assesses the significance of the difference between
two dependent samples when the variable of interest is
dichotomous. It is used primarily in before-after studies to
test for an experimental effect.
 Testing Hypotheses about Two Unrelated Means

• Independent samples t-test: is done to see if there are any

significant differences in the means for two groups in the
variable of interest.
 Testing Hypotheses about Several Means

• ANalysis Of VAriance (ANOVA) helps to examine the

significant mean differences among more than two groups on
an interval or ratio-scaled dependent variable.
 Regression Analysis

• Simple regression analysis is used in a situation where one

metric independent variable is hypothesized to affect one
metric dependent variable.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vnQIW5ts3eM
 Scatter Plot

1 00

80
LKLHD_DATE

60

40

20

30 40 50 60 70 80 90

P H Y S _ AT T R
 Simple Linear Regression

Yi  0  1  X i 
i

?
1 `0
ˆ0
1 ˆ

ˆ
0

X
 Ordinary Least Squares Estimation

n
Minimize e
i
i2

Yi
Yi
ei

Xi
 SPSS

• Analyze ► Regression ► Linear

Model Summary

Model R R Square Adjusted Std. Error of

R Square the Estimate
1 .841 .707 .704 5.919

ANOVA

Model Sum of df F
Squares Mean Square Sig.
1 Regression 8195.319 1 8195.319 233.901 .000
Residual 3398.640 97 35.038
Total 11593.960 98
 SPSS cont’d

Coefficients
Unstandardized Standardized
Coefficients Coefficients
Model B Std. Error Beta t Sig.

1 (Constant) 34.738 2.065 16.822 .000

PHYS_ATTR .520 .034 .841 15.294 .000
 Model Validation

1. Face validity: signs and magnitudes make sense

2. Statistical validity:
– Model fit: R2

– Model significance: F-test

– Parameter significance: t-test

– Strength of effects: beta-coefficients

– Discussion of multicollinearity: correlation matrix

3. Predictive validity: how well the model predicts

− Out-of-sample forecast errors

 SPSS

Model Summary
Adjusted Std. Error of
Model R R Square R Square the Estimate
1 .841 .707 .704 5.919
 SPSS

Model Summary
Adjusted Std. Error of
Model R R Square R Square the Estimate
1 .841 .707 .704 5.919

= r(Likelihood to Date, Physical Attractiveness)

 Model Significance

• H0: 0 = 1 = ... = m = 0 (all parameters are

zero)

H1: Not H0
 Model Significance

• H0: 0 = 1 = ... = m = 0 (all parameters are zero)

H1: Not H0

• Test statistic (k = # of variables excl. intercept)

F =
~ Fk, n-1-k
(SSReg/k)
(SSe/(n – 1 – k)

SSReg = explained variation by regression

SSe = unexplained variation by regression

 SPSS

ANOVA
Sum of
Model Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
1 Regression 8195.319 1 8195.319 233.901 .000
Residual 3398.640 97 35.038
Total 11593.960 98
 Parameter Significance

• Testing that a specific parameter is significant (i.e., j  0)

H0: j = 0
H1: j  0

• Test-statistic: t = bj/SEj ~ tn-k-1

with bj = the estimated coefficient for j

SEj = the standard error of bj

 SPSS cont’d

Coefficients
Unstandardized Standardized
Coefficients Coefficients
Model B Std. Error Beta t Sig.

1 (Constant) 34.738 2.065 16.822 .000

PHYS_ATTR .520 .034 .841 15.294 .000
 Conceptual Model

+
Physical Likelihood
Attractiveness to Date
 Multiple Regression Analysis

• We use more than one (metric or non-metric) independent

variable to explain variance in a (metric) dependent variable.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ulv_erdmPzc
 Conceptual Model

Perceived
Intelligence +

+
Physical Likelihood
Attractiveness to Date
 Model Summary
Adjusted Std. Error of
Model R R Square R Square the Estimate
1 .844 .712 .706 5.895

ANOVA

Sum of
Model Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
1 Regression 8257.731 2 4128.866 118.808 .000
Residual 3336.228 96 34.752
Total 11593.960 98

Coefficients
Unstandardized Standardized
Coefficients Coefficients
Model B Std. Error Beta t Sig.

1 (Constant) 31.575 3.130 10.088 .000

PERC_INTGCE .050 .037 .074 1.340 .183
PHYS_ATTR .523 .034 .846 15.413 .000
 Conceptual Model

Gender
Perceived
Intelligence +
+

+
Physical Likelihood
Attractiveness to Date
 Moderators

• Moderator is qualitative (e.g., gender, race, class) or quantitative (e.g.,

level of reward) that affects the direction and/or strength of the relation
between dependent and independent variable
• Analytical representation

Y =  0 +  1X 1 +  2X 2 +  3X 1X 2

with Y = DV
X1 = IV
X2 =
Moder
ator
 Model Summary
Adjusted Std. Error of
Model R R Square R Square the Estimate
1 .910 .828 .821 4.601

ANOVA
Sum of
Model Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
1 Regression 9603.938 4 2400.984 113.412 .000
Residual 1990.022 94 21.170
Total 11593.960 98
 Coefficients

Coefficients

Unstandardized Standardized
Coefficients Coefficients
Model B Std. Error Beta t Sig.

1 (Constant) 32.603 3.163 10.306 .000

PERC_INTGCE .000 .043 .000 .004 .997
PHYS_ATTR .496 .027 .802 18.540 .000
GENDER -.420 3.624 -.019 -.116 .908
PI_GENDER .127 .058 .369 2.177 .032

interaction significant effect on dep. var.

 Conceptual Model

Gender
Perceived
Intelligence +
+

+
Physical Likelihood
Attractiveness to Date

+
Communality of Perceived Fit
Interests
 Mediating/intervening variable

• Accounts for the relation between the independent and dependent variable

• Analytical representation

1. Y = 0 + 1X

=> 1 is significant

2. M = 2 + 3X

=> 3 is significant

3. Y = 4 + 5 X + 6 M

=> 5 is not significant With Y = DV

X = IV
=> 6 is significant M = mediator
 Step 1

Model Summary
Adjusted Std. Error of
Model R R Square R Square the Estimate
1 .963 .927 .923 3. 020

ANOVA
Sum of
Model Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
1 Regression 10745.603 5 2149.121 235.595 .000
Residual 848.357 93 9.122
Total 11593.960 98
 Step 1 cont’d

Coefficients
Unstandardized Standardized
Coefficients Coefficients
Model B Std. Error Beta t Sig.

1 (Constant) 17.094 2.497 6.846 .000

PERC_INTGCE .030 .029 .044 1.039 .301
PHYS_ATTR .517 .018 .836 29.269 .000
GENDER -.783 2.379 -.036 -.329 .743
PI_GENDER .122 .038 .356 3.201 .002
COMM_INTER .212 .019 .319 11.187 .000

significant effect on dep. var.

 Step 2

Model Summary
Adjusted Std. Error of
Model R R Square R Square the Estimate
1 .977 .955 .955 2. 927

ANOVA
Sum of
Model Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
1 Regression 17720.881 1 17720.881 2068.307 .000
Residual 831.079 97 8.568
Total 18551.960 98
 Step 2 cont’d

Coefficients
Unstandardized Standardized
Coefficients Coefficients
Model B Std. Error Beta t Sig.

1 (Constant) 8.474 1.132 7.484 .000

COMM_INTER .820 .018 .977 45.479 .000

significant effect on mediator

 Step 3

Model Summary
Adjusted Std. Error of
Model R R Square R Square the Estimate
1 .966 .934 .930 2. 885

ANOVA
Sum of
Model Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
1 Regression 10828.336 6 1804.723 216.862 .000
Residual 765.624 92 8.322
Total 11593.960 98
 Step 3 cont’d

Coefficients
Unstandardized Standardized
Coefficients Coefficients
Model B Std. Error Beta t Sig.

1 (Constant) 14.969 2.478 6.041 .000

PERC_INTGCE .019 .028 .028 .688 .493
PHYS_ATTR .518 .017 .839 30.733 .000
GENDER -2.040 2.307 -.094 -.884 .379
PI_GENDER .142 .037 .412 3.825 .000
COMM_INTER -.051 .085 -.077 -.596 .553
PERC_FIT .320 .102 .405 3.153 .002
insignificant effect of indep. var on dep. Var.
significant effect of mediator on dep. var.
 Chapter 15

Qualitative Data Analysis

 Lecture Sub-topics

Analysis of 03 Data Reduction

01 Qualitative Data 02
Qualitative Data

Data Display 05
Drawing 06 Reliability in Qualitative
04 Conclusions Research

Validity in
07 Qualitative Research
 Qualitative Data

• Qualitative data: data in the form of words.

• Examples: interview notes, transcripts of focus groups,

answers to open-ended questions, transcription of video
recordings, accounts of experiences with a product on the
internet, news articles, and the like.
 Analysis of Qualitative Data

• The analysis of qualitative data is aimed at making valid

inferences from the often overwhelming amount of collected
data.
• Steps:

– data reduction

– data display

– drawing and verifying conclusions

 Data Reduction

• Coding: the analytic process through which the qualitative

data that you have gathered are reduced, rearranged, and
integrated to form theory.

• Categorization: is the process of organizing, arranging, and

classifying coding units.
 Data Display

• Data display: taking your reduced data and displaying them

in an organized, condensed manner.

• Examples: charts, matrices, diagrams, graphs,

frequently mentioned phrases, and/or drawings.
 Drawing Conclusions

• At this point where you answer your research questions by

determining what identified themes stand for, by thinking
about explanations for observed patterns and relationships,
or by making contrasts and comparisons.
 Reliability in Qualitative Research

• Category “depends on the analyst’s ability to

reliability
formulate categories and present to competent judges
definitions of the categories so they will agree on which
items of a certain population belong in a category and which
do not.” (Kassarjian, 1977, p. 14).
• Interjudge reliability can be defined degree of consistency
between coders processing the same data (Kassarjian 1977).
 Validity in Qualitative Research

• Validity refers to the extent to which the qualitative research

results:
– accurately represent the collected data (internal validity)

– can be generalized or transferred to other

contexts or settings (external validity).
 Measure of Overall Fit: R2

• R2 measures the proportion of the variation in y that is explained by the

variation in x.

• R2 = total variation – unexplained variation

total variation

• R2 takes on any value between zero and one:

– R2 = 1: Perfect match between the line and the data points.

– R2 = 0: There is no linear relationship between x and y.

 Chapter 16

The Research Report

 Lecture Sub-topics

The Written Report 02

Presentation 03 Characteristics of a Well-
01 of Results Written Report

Contents of Research 06 Copyright

04 Report 05 Oral Presentation
 The Written Report

• The key purpose of any research report is to offer a clear description of

what has been done in the various stages of the research process.
• Important to identify the specific purpose of the report, so that it can be
tailored accordingly.
• Examples

– Simple descriptive report

– Comprehensive report, offering alternative solutions

 Presentation of Results

• Results of the study and recommendations to solve the

problem have to be effectively communicated to the sponsor,
so that suggestions made are accepted and implemented.

• Contents and organization of written report and oral

presentation depend on the purpose of the research study,
and the audience to which it is targeted.
 Characteristics of a Well-Written Report

• Clarity

• Conciseness

• Coherence

• The right emphasis on important aspects

• Meaningful organization of paragraphs

• Smooth transition from one topic to the next

• Apt choice of words

• Specificity
 Contents of Research Report

• Title
• Executive summary or abstract
• Table of contents
• List of Tables, Figures, and Other Materials
• Preface
• Authorization Letter
• The introductory section
• The body of the report
• The final part of the report
• References
• Appendix
 Contents of Research Report

The introductory section:

1. Introduction (§1.1).

2. Reason for the research (description of the problem) (§1.2).

3. Research objective and research questions (§1.3).

4. The scope of the study (§1.4).

5. Research method (approach) (§1.5).

6. Managerial relevance (§1.6).

7. Structure and division of chapters in the research report (§1.7).

 Contents of Research Report

The body of the report:

• Theoretical part: contains an in-depth exploration and a clear explication
of the relevant literature. The exact nature of this part depends on
the type of study you have done (exploratory, descriptive, or causal).

• Empirical part: includes the design details – such as sampling and data
collection methods, as well as the time horizon, the field setting, and
the unit of analysis – and the results of the study.
 Contents of Research Report

The final part of the report:

1. The main findings of your research.

2. The (managerial) of these findings (vis-à-vis your

implications
research questions).
3. Recommendations for implementation and a cost-benefit analysis
of these recommendations.

4. The limitations of your study and suggestions for future

research following up on your research project.
 Oral Presentation

• Deciding on the Content

• Visual Aids

– For instance graphs, charts,

tables

• The presenter

• The presentation

• Handling questions
 Oral Presentation

• Present the important aspects of the study so as to hold the interest of the
audience, while still providing detailed information.

• Different stimuli (charts, short movies, pictorial and tabular depiction, etc.) have
to be creatively provided to the audience to sustain their interest throughout the
presentation.

• To make all this possible, time and effort have to be expended in crafting,
planning, organizing, and rehearsing the presentation.
 Oral Presentation

• Check out the ‘TEDx Speaker

Guide’/‘TEDx illustrated guide
for speakers’ for some guiding
principles on how to draft and
deliver a compelling talk
(www.ted.com).

Retrieved from: http://tedxmthood.com/illustrated-guide/

 Oral Presentation

• Slides are often helpful. Images, photos, graphs and infographics may also help
you to sustain the interest of your audience.
• Think about dress, mannerisms, gestures, and voice modulation.
• Speak audibly, clearly, without distracting mannerisms, and at the right speed.
• Establish eye contact.
• Varying the length of the sentences. Vary your tone of voice and the rate of flow
of information.
• Rehearse. Keep rehearsing until you feel comfortable about your presentation.