Tools of Research

Dr. Muhammad Islam

PhD (University of Leeds,
UK)
University of the Punjab,
Lahore
How to Collect Data?
 Tools of research are basically used for the
collection of the data

 Use of tool depends upon the type of

research

 Qualitative and quantitative researches use

different tools of measurement according to
the purposes
It is necessary to understand
what data is
 Facts and principles, used in finding the
answers
 characteristics of people i.e. ages &
income, etc.
 Scores in tests, anecdotal records and
the marks of the students, etc.
 Answers to the questions whether in
questionnaires or in interviews
 Assessed values, measures, statements
of the beliefs and opinions, laws and
descriptions, etc.
Cont’d…
 Data is what actually can provide answer
to the question raised by the research

 For the collection of the data the very

first step is to design the research tool

 The nature of the tool depends upon the

characteristics of the target group
Cont’d…
 The authenticity of the collected data
depends upon how the tool is constructed

 The clearly and carefully constructed tool
will measure what you actually want to find
out

 It will address all the problems for which the

research is being conducted
Most commonly used tools
 Questionnaires
 Interviews
 Observations
 Tests (achievement, aptitude, personality,
language proficiency)
 Scales
 Document Analysis
 Social/electronic media discourse
Questionnaires
 Questionnaire: a written document based on
different open and close-ended questions
with different purposes, size and format.

 Used for descriptive research studies for

getting information from the research
participants or target population

 It is used when the straightforward
information is required
Cont’d…
 Used when the respondents of the study are
large in number

 Time and cost involved

 The respondents of your research must be

able to read the questionnaire
Continued…
 Questionnaire can be:

 Group administered (administered by the

researcher in case of illiterate respondents)
 Individually administered
 Questionnaires: Do’s and
Don’ts
 Take consent in case of using standardized
questionnaires
 Questionnaire should be eyes friendly and
mind friendly
 A research questionnaire must be different
from the questionnaire of a marketing
product or the term paper
 Ask direct questions about the issue
concerned
 Directions about how to answer the questions
must be given
Cont’d…
 Give examples to answer the questions
where necessary
 Piloting is necessary
 Pre-coded answers should be prepared in
case of close-ended questions
 Provide the coding boxes so that the
respondents can be aware of what they are
answering
 Questionnaire must accompany the cover
letter if you are posting it to the
respondents
 Questions should be in easy and
understandable language
 Advantages Disadvantages
Easy to prepare Researcher cannot see
the expressions of the
Can cover the large respondents
sample
Answers cannot be true
Cheaper as compared
to many others People hesitate to fill

Offer different types of People sometimes do

questions not return
Activity 1
Interviews
 A less technical tool for the collection of
data in the form of formal and informal
conversation.
 Can be used in survey researches.
 Can be:
Structured
Unstructured
Semi-Structured
 Can be:
One to One: meeting between one researcher and one
respondent.
Group Interviews: meeting between one researcher and
more than one respondents.
Focus Group Discussion:
collection of information on non-sensitive
issues by arranging a discussion of experts.
the researcher performs the role of the
moderator between group members.
information is collected through note
taking or the recording of the discussion
and the main points are highlighted.
Cont’d…
 Can be conducted face to face, or through
telephonic or other electronic sources

 Notepad, tape recorder, video recorder are
the equipment used to record and save
the data

 Used for large number of sample or to get

public opinion about some issue

 Different other methods can be used with

the interviews i.e.
questionnaires/checklists etc
Interview: Do’s and Don’ts
 Interview should be planned in selection
of:
topics
respondents
place
time for the interview
questions to be asked

 Interviewer must have the complete list of

the respondents, with their addresses and
other contact details.
Cont’d…
 Decide the method for recording the
interview (field notes, tape/video
recording or any other)
 Data based on emotions, experiences and
feelings, so it is necessary to take record
of each
 Questions should be well prepared before
taking the interview

 Do not behave in threatening way

 Practice to ask the questions before the

actual interview session
Common features of Interview
 Consent to take part in the study
 Make the sample aware of the research
purpose
 Objectives of the research must be kept in
mind
 Confidentiality of the responses of the
sample
 Your purpose is to get information not to
provide information
 Should not be very lengthy
 Unbiased approaches
 Brief questions
 Easily Understandable coding
Question Formats
 Direct questions may be asked with an
appropriate answer
 Questions may be asked indirectly

 Statements can be given with which the
respondent can agree or disagree
 Questions about the facts can be asked
which the respondent answers according
to his/her experience
Cont’d…
 Questions to take the opinions or the
preferences of the respondents about
some object

 Predetermined questions can be asked in

which the respondent is supposed to
answer each and every question

 Response key is also a type of question in
which the respondent is allowed to skip
some questions which does not apply to
him/her
Activity 2
Observations
 Observation is the recording of the behaviour
of the sample.
 Relies on what the researcher has witnessed
not on what people say or think about issues.
 Observation can be of two types:
Participant Observation
Non-participant or Systematic Observation
Participant and Non-participant
Observation

Similarities
• Both rely on direct observation as an empirical
method for data collection

• Both involve field work

• Both are based on the perception of the

observer

• Both are conducted in natural settings

• Both need proper planning and schedules

 Participant Non-participant
Observation Observation
Sample is aware during Sometimes it becomes
observation so behaviour difficult for the
is affected researcher to find out the
reason for some specific
behaviour
Use indirect observation Use direct observation
Requires to achieve the Researcher is supposed
confidence of not to disturb the settings
respondents to be or interact with people
observed
Observational Checklist
 Observation checklist is used to record the
behavior of the participants

 Based on rating scales and the coding

systems

 Different forms of rating scales are present

in observation checklists

 There can be different techniques for

preparing the observation checklist
according to the requirement of the topic
and the perception of the observer.
Cont’d…
 But most observational checklists can be
 Based on following categories:
Duration Recording: length of time involved in
occurrence of some behaviour.
Frequency Recoding: number of occurrence of
behaviour.
Interval Recording: observation of one subject
during a fixed period of time.
Continuous Recording: each and every happening
is recorded
Scales for Measurement
 Measurement scales are used to collect the
different forms of data and quantify the
response of the respondents to measure the
variables

 Type of measurement scale will depend upon

the type of data i.e. nominal, ordinal, interval
and ratio
Continued
 Different scales are:
Nominal Scales
Ordinal Scale
Interval Scale
Ratio Scale
Likert Scale
Rating Scales
Nominal Scales
 The term means “to name”

 The categories differ in quality rather that
quantity
 Each value belongs to only its own
category but can be more than or less
than the other
 Nominal scales are based on categories
which must be mutually exclusive,
exhaustive and uni-dimensional

 Most elaborating scale
Cont’d…
 There is no chance of addition,
multiplication, subtraction or other
mathematical operations with the
categories

 It provides the ratio or the frequency and
provides the definite information

 Can be used to measure Gender, or

preferences of respondents
 Nominal Scale
Please specify your Gender:
discipline:
 Male
 Arts  Female
 Humanities
 Pure Sciences
 Social Sciences
Ordinal Scale
 The term means “to order”
 In ordinal scale the data is organized in some
order (high-low or low-high)
 This scale does not specify how much different
the categories are from each other
 Categories can be presented in the form of a
continuum
 Categories are given in a logical or a rank order
 Height, weight, income and the ranks can be
measured
 Ordinal Scale

Your income is:

□ Below 30,000
□ 30,100 to 50,000
□ 50,100 and above
Interval Scale
 Interval scale is used to tell the order of
the objects
 It tells how much distant the categories
are from each other
 All types of mathematical operations can
be performed on this data
 Rating scales are considered the interval
scales also
 The difference between the ages of people
can be identified with the help of this scale
Interval Scale
Kindly mention the number of
employees at your organization from
year 1997 to 2001:
Year Number of Employees

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001
Ratio Scale

 Ratio scale is a scale with true value “0”

 Used to get quantitative data


 Salary, quantities purchased and market
share are all expressed on a ratio scale

 Most sophisticated scale of all

Likert Scale
 A uni-dimensional scale usually with five
points.
 All the points have equal interval between
each other.
 Records the agreement or disagreement
of respondent about some particular
variable.
 Options are pre-coded.
 Options are:
Strongly Agree, Agree, Undecided, Disagree,
Strongly Disagree
Rating Scales
 A scale used in observational studies
 It is used to record the behaviour or
activity of the respondents
 Descriptive statements are used with
infinite points on a line

 Point or line to record the behaviour is

termed as rater
 Can be subjected to human error
 Rating Scale

__5__, __4___, __3___, ___2___ , __ 1___

Students used Students

teaching aids did not use

teaching
aids
Tests for Measurement
 Test is a measurement tool which is used to
measure the performance of an individual in
some specific area of interest.

 There are two main types of tests:

Norm Referenced or Standardized Tests
Criterion Referenced Tests
Norm Referenced Tests

 In norm referenced tests the norms are

used relatively to measure the performance
of some individual

 Norms are basically the standard with
which the performance is compared
Types of Norm Referenced
Tests

 Following are the most commonly used

types of norm referenced tests
Achievement Tests
Aptitude Tests
Intelligence Tests
Personality Tests
Vocational/Career Tests
Sensory Motor Tests
Achievement Tests
 Used:
to measure the performance of an individual in
different subjects which they have learned and
interpreting this performance in the form of grades
to compare with the performance and learning of
others
Aptitude Tests
 Used:
to measure the potential of some individual in
learning about what they can learn not about what
they have already learned
Intelligence Tests
 Used:
to measure the mental abilities i.e. to analyze the
situations,
to create meaning
to organize the ideas and
to measure the abstract intelligence of an
individual
Personality Tests
Used:
to measure the type or the characteristics of the
personality and
to measure the human behaviors, their skills and
their needs etc.
Vocational/Career Tests
 Used:
to measure the ability and suitability of some
person in adopting some profession and career
Sensory Motor Tests
 Used:
to measure an individual’s sensory capabilities and
motor abilities and
to measure the sensory coordination
Criterion Referenced
Tests
 Interpretation of an individual’s
performance on the basis of an absolute
criteria

 Criterion is basically some specific

subject/skill

 Main purpose of this test is to measure

some specific objectives which are pre-
defined operationally and behaviorally
 Content validity of these tests are required.

 There is no restriction about the number of

individuals falling in pass marks criterion.

 The cut off or the passing marks criteria is

set by either the subject teacher or by the
researcher
Common Rules for
Constructing the Tools
 Selection of topic
 Identification of the variables to be measured
 Considering the audience
 Determining the objectives
 Constructing the items more than the required
 Selecting of the most appropriate items
 Development of Keys (If necessary)
 Assigning Codes (If necessary)
Cont’d…
 Pilot testing of the tools

 Determining the Validity and the Reliability

of the tests:
Reliability: Consistency of the results of the test
Validity: Does the test measure what it is actually
supposed to measure?
Document Analysis
 Interpretation and analysis of already
recorded material
 Data is interpreted in its original context

 Sample of the content/document analysis

is “text”
 It is done to determine the authenticity
and validity of the recorded material and
the data is interpreted according to a pre-
specified criterion
 Text books analysis and the historical
research are its most commonly used
applications

 Analysis is done through the worksheets

prepared for this purpose