THE BERNOULLI EQUATION

The Bernoulli equation is an approximate relation between pressure, velocity, and elevation, and is valid in regions
of steady, incompressible flow where net frictional forces are negligible (Fig. 1). Despite its simplicity, it has proven
to be a very powerful tool in fluid mechanics. In this section, we derive the Bernoulli equation by applying the
conservation of linear momentum principle.

Figure 1: The Bernoulli equation is an approximate equation

that is valid only in inviscid regions of flow where net viscous
forces are negligibly small compared to inertial,
gravitational, or pressure forces. Such regions occur outside
of boundary layers and wakes.

Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation

Consider the motion of a fluid particle in a flow field in steady flow described in detail previously. Applying
Newton’s second law (which is referred to as the conservation of linear momentum relation in fluid mechanics) in the
s-direction on a particle moving along a streamline gives

(5-35)

Figure 2: The forces acting on a fluid particle along a streamline.

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In regions of flow where net frictional forces are negligible, the significant forces acting in the ^-direction are the
pressure (acting on both sides) and the component of the weight of the particle in the ^-direction (Fig. 2).Therefore,
Eq. 5-35 becomes

dV
P dA - (P + dP) dA - W sin 0 = mV (5-36)
ds

where 6 is the angle between the normal of the streamline and the vertical z-axis
at that point, m = pW = p dA ds is the mass, W = mg = pg dA ds is the weight of
the fluid particle, and sin 0 = dz/ds. Substituting,
-dP dA - pg dA ds ^ = p dA ds V ^
(5-37)
's ds r ds

Canceling dA from each term and simplifying,

-dP - pg dz = pV dV (5-38)

Noting that V dV = \ d(V2) and dividing each term by p gives

dP
— + jd(V2) + g dz = 0 (5-39)

Integrating (Fig. 5-24),

, dP V2
Steady flow: — + — + gz = constant (along a streamline) (5-40)

since the last two terms are exact differentials. In the case of incompressible flow,
the first term also becomes an exact differential, and its integration gives
P V2
Steady, incompressible flow: — + — + gz = constant (along a streamline) (5^tD

This is the famous Bernoulli equation, which is commonly used in fluid mechanics
for steady, incompressible flow along a streamline in inviscid

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 Figure 3: The Bernoulli equation is derived assuming incompressible flow, and
thus it should not be used for flows with significant compressibility effects.

The Bernoulli equation can also be written between any two points on the same streamline as
P V2 P V2
Steady, incompressible flow: —1 H—-1 -h gzn = — + —- + gz2 (5^2)

Conclusions about Bernoulli equation:

The sum of the kinetic, potential, and flow energies of a fluid particle is constant along a streamline during steady
flow when the compressibility and frictional effects are negligible.

Static, Dynamic, and Stagnation Pressures

The Bernoulli equation states that the sum of the flow, kinetic, and potential energies of a fluid particle along a
streamline is constant. Therefore, the kinetic and potential energies of the fluid can be converted to flow energy (and
vice versa) during flow, causing the pressure to change. This phenomenon can be made more visible by multiplying
the Bernoulli equation by the density p,

V2
(5-45)
P + p— + pgz = constant (along a
streamline)

Each term in this equation has pressure units, and thus each term represents some kind of pressure:
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• P is the static pressure (it does not incorporate any dynamic effects); it represents the actual thermodynamic
pressure of the fluid. This is the same as the pressure used in thermodynamics and property tables.
• pV2/2 is the dynamic pressure; it represents the pressure rise when the fluid in motion is brought to a stop
isentropically.
• pgz is the hydrostatic pressure, which is not pressure in a real sense since its value depends on the reference level
selected; it accounts for the elevation effects, i.e., of fluid weight on pressure.
The sum of the static, dynamic, and hydrostatic pressures is called the total pressure. Therefore, the Bernoulli
equation states that the total pressure along a streamline is constant.
The sum of the static and dynamic pressures is called the stagnation pressure, and it is expressed as
V2
P sLan = P + P— (kPa) (5-4&)

The stagnation pressure represents the pressure at a point where the fluid is brought to a complete stop isentropically.
The static, dynamic, and stagnation pressures are shown in Fig. 5. When static and stagnation pressures are measured
at a specified location, the fluid velocity at that location can be calculated from

2(Ps,g - PI
V=
\P

Figure 5: The static, dynamic, and stagnation Figure 4: Close-up of a Pitot-static probe, showing the
stagnation pressure hole and two of the five static
pressures.
circumferential pressure holes. Photo by Po-Ya Abel
Chuang. Used by permission.

Equation 5-47 is useful in the measurement of flow velocity when a combination of a static pressure tap and a Pitot
tube is used, as illustrated in Fig.5 &4. A static pressure tap is simply a small hole drilled into a wall such that the
plane of the hole is parallel to the flow direction. It measures the static pressure. A Pitot tube is a small tube with its
open end aligned into the flow so as to sense the full impact pressure of the flowing fluid.

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Limitations on the Use of the Bernoulli Equation
The Bernoulli equation (Eq. 5-41) is one of the most frequently used and misused equations in fluid mechanics.

It is important to understand the restrictions on its applicability and observe the limitations on its use, as explained
here:
1. Steady flow: The first limitation on the Bernoulli equation is that it is applicable to steady flow. Therefore, it
should not be used during the transient start-up and shut-down periods, or during periods of change in the flow
conditions.
2. Frictionless flow: Every flow involves some friction, no matter how small, and frictional effects may or may not
be negligible. The situation is complicated even more by the amount of error that can be tolerated. In
general, frictional effects are negligible for short flow sections with large cross sections, especially at low flow
velocities.
3. No shaft work: The Bernoulli equation was derived from a force balance on a particle moving along a streamline.
Therefore, the Bernoulli equation is not applicable in a flow section that involves a pump, turbine, fan, or any other
machine or impeller since such devices destroy the streamlines and carry out energy interactions with the fluid
particles.
4. Incompressible flow: One of the assumptions used in the derivation of the Bernoulli equation is that p = constant
and thus the flow is incompressible. This condition is satisfied by liquids and also by gases at Mach numbers less than
about 0.3 since compressibility effects and thus density variations of gases are negligible at such relatively low
velocities.
5. No heat transfer: The density of a gas is inversely proportional to temperature, and thus the Bernoulli equation
should not be used for flow sections that involve significant temperature change such as heating or cooling sections.
6. Flow along a streamline: Strictly speaking, the Bernoulli equation P/p +V 2/2 + gz = C is applicable along a
streamline, and the value of the constant C, in general, is different for different streamlines. But when a region of the
flow is irrotational, and thus there is no vorticity in the flow field, the value of the constant C remains the same for all
streamlines, and, therefore, the Bernoulli equation becomes applicable across streamlines as well.

Sudden
expansion

Figure 6: Frictional effects and components that

disturb the streamlined structure of flow in a flow
section make the Bernoulli equation invalid.

© rVvVi ©

A heating section
Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) and Energy Grade Line (EGL)
It is often convenient to represent the level of mechanical energy graphically using heights to facilitate visualization
of the various terms of the Bernoulli equation. This is done by dividing each term of the Bernoulli equation by g to
give
P V2
— + — + z = H = constant falonq a streamline) (5^4&)

Each term in this equation has the dimension of length and represents some kind of "head" of a flowing fluid as follows:
■ P/pg is the pressure head; it represents the height of a fluid column that produces the static pressure P.
* V2/2g is the velocity head; it represents the elevation needed for a fluid to reach the velocity V during frictionless free
fall.
■ z is the elevation head; it represents the potential energy of the fluid.

Figure 7: The hydraulic grade line (HGL) and the energy grade line (EGL) for free discharge from a reservoir
through a horizontal pipe with a diffuser.

The line that represents the sum of the static pressure and the elevation heads, P/pg + z, is called the hydraulic grade
line. The line that represents the total head of the fluid, P/pg + V2/2g + z, is called the energy grade line. The
difference between the heights of EGL and HGL is equal to the dynamic head, V 2/2g figure (8).

Figure 8: In an idealized Bernoulli-type

flow, EGL is horizontal and its height
remains constant. But this is not the case for
HGL when the flow velocity varies along
the flow.
EXAMPLE5-5 Spraying Water into the Air
Water is flowing from a hose attached to a water maiin at 400 kPa gage (Fig, 5-38),
A child places his thumb to cover most of the hose outlet, causing a thin jet of high-
speed water to emerge, If the hose is held upward, what is the maximum height that
the jet could achieve?

SOLUTION Water from a hose attached to the water main is sprayed into the air,
The maximum height the water jet can rise is to be determined, Assumptions 1 The
flow exiting into the air is steady, incompressible, and irrotational [so that the
Bernoulli equation is applicable), 2 The water pressure

■2)
in the hose near the outlet is equal to the water main pressure. 3 The surface
tension effects are negligible. 4 The friction between the water and air is
negligible. 5 The irreversibilities that may occur at the outlet of the hose due to
abrupt expansion are negligible.
Piopeities We take the density of water to be 1000 kg/m3.
Analysis This problem involves the conversion of flow, kinetic, and potential
energies to each other without involving any pumps, turbines, and wasteful
components with large frictional losses, and thus it is suitable for the use of the
Bernoulli equation. The water height will be maximum under the stated
assumptions. The velocity inside the hose is relatively low (V: = 0) and we take the
hose outlet as the reference level (Zj = 0). At the top of the water trajectory V2 = 0,
and atmospheric pressure pertains. Then the Bernoulli equation simplifies to

Solving for z2 and substituting,

^1. gage 400 kPa f'lOOO N/mA/] kg - m/sJ\
Pg (1000 kg/m3)(9.31 m/s2) V 1 Wa J\ 1N /
= 40.8 m
Therefore, the water jet can rise as high as 40.8 m into the sky in this case.
Discussion The result obtained by the Bernoulli equation represents the upper
limit and should be interpreted accordingly. It tells us that the water cannot
possibly rise more than 40.8 m, and, in all likelihood, the rise will be much less
than 40.8 m due to irreversible losses that we neglected.

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EXAMPLE5-6 Water Discharge from a Large Tank
A large tank open to the atmosphere is filled with water to a height of 5 m from
the outlet tap (Fig. 5-39). A tap near the bottom of the tank is now opened, and
water flows out from the smooth and rounded outlet. Determine the water
velocity at the outlet.

SOLUTION A tap near the bottom of a tank is opened. The exit velocity of
water from the tank is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is incompressible and irrotational (except very close to
the walls). 2 The water drains slowly enough that the flow can be approximated
as steady (actually quasi-steady when the tank begins to drain). Analysis This
problem involves the conversion of flow, kinetic, and potential energies to each
other without involving any pumps, turbines, and wasteful components with large
frictional losses, and thus it is suitable for the use of the Bernoulli equation. We
take point 1 to be at the free surface of water so that Pj = patm (open to the
atmosphere), Vx “ 0 (the tank is large relative to the outlet), and zx = 5 m and z2 =
0 (we take the reference level at the center of the outlet). Also, P2 = Patni (water
discharges into the atmosphere). Then the Bernoulli equation simplifies to

H V^° Pi VI
-F + — tz, = ft- + K 2g fa 2g Vf
—» zg

Solving for V2 and substituting,

V2 - \ 2gZ| ■ \ 2(9.81 m/s2)(5 m) - 9.9 m/s

The relation V = \ 2gz is called the Toricelli equation.

Therefore, the water leaves the tank with an initial velocity of 9.9 m/s. This is
the same velocity that would manifest if a solid were dropped a distance of 5 m
in the absence of air friction drag. (What would the velocity be if the tap were at
the bottom of the tank instead of on the side?)
Discussion If the orifice were sharp-edged instead of rounded, then the flow
would be disturbed, and the velocity would be less than 9.9 m/s, especially
near the edges. Care must be exercised when attempting to apply the Bernoulli
equation to situations where abrupt expansions or contractions occur since the
friction and flow disturbance in such cases may not be negligible.

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 2
EXAMPLE5-7 Siphoning Out Gasoline from a Fuel Tank
During a trip to the beach (Patni = 1 atm = 101.3 kPa), a car runs out of gasoline,
and it becomes necessary to siphon gas out of the car of a Good Samaritan (Fig.
5-40). The siphon is a small-diameter hose, and to start the siphon it is
necessary to insert one siphon end in the full gas tank, fill the hose with gasoline
via suction, and then place the other end in a gas can below the level of the gas
tank. The difference in pressure between point 1 (at the free surface of the
gasoline in the tank) and point 2 (at the outlet of the tube) causes the liquid to
flow from the higher to the lower elevation. Point 2 is located 0.75 m below point
1 in this case, and point 3 is located 2 m above point 1. The siphon diameter is 4
mm, and frictional losses in the siphon are to be disregarded. Determine (a) the
minimum time to withdraw 4 L of gasoline from the tank to the can and (b) the
pressure at point 3. The density of gasoline is 750 kg/m3.

SOLUTION Gasoline is to be siphoned from a tank. The minimum time it takes to

withdraw 4 L of gasoline and the pressure at the highest point in the system are
to be determined.
FIGURE 5-40 Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 Even though the
Schematic for Example 5-7. Bernoulli equation is not valid through the pipe because of frictional losses, we
employ the Bernoulli equation anyway in order to obtain a best-case estimate. 3
The change in the gasoline surface level inside the tank is negligible compared
to elevations zx and z2 during the siphoning period.
Piopeities The density of gasoline is given to be 750 kg/m3.
Analysis [a) We take point 1 to be at the free surface of gasoline in the tank so
that P, = Patm (open to the atmosphere), Vj o (the tank is large relative to the tube
diameter), and z2 = 0 (point 2 is taken as the reference level). Also, Pi = P*tm £
gasoline discharges into the atmosphere). Then the Bernoulli equation simplifies
to

p; v^° p2 \/i /°
2
9 f9 2
9
Solving for V2 and substituting,
V2 = \ 2gz, = V 2(9.81 m/s2)(0.75 m) = 3.84 m/s

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The cross-sectional area of the tube and the flow rate of gasoline are A = TTD2/4 =

TT(5 X 10 m)?/4 = 1.96 X 1D_im2

t> = V;A = (3.34 m/s)(1.96 X 10-5 m-) = 7.53 X ID-5 rrffe = 0.0753 L/s Then the time

needed to siphon 4 L of gasoline becomes

lb) The pressure at point 3 can be determined by writing the Bernoulli equation between
points 2 and 3. Noting that V2 = V3 (conservation of mass), z2
0, and P2 = P,
attni
0
p2 % y P] ys Pitm _ P3 , ,
■+ i-i “1“ Z ^
pg ' /g ' "z pg pg pg
Solving Tor P3 and substituting,

P3 = P^im - f>g*3
{ _1 /N1 kPa
Vi kq
kg-■r m/s2Al000 N/m2
= 101.3 kPa - (750 kg/m5)(9,31 m/s2)(2.75 m)

= 81.1 kPa
Discussion The siphoning time is determined by neglecting frictional effects, and thus
this is the minimum time required. In reality, the time will be longer than 53.1 s because
of friction between the gasoline and the tube surface. Also, the pressure at point 3 is
below the atmospheric pressure. If the elevation difference between points 1 and 3 is
too high, the pressure at point 3 may drop below the vapor pressure of gasoline at the
gasoline temperature, and some gasoline may evaporate (cavitate). The vapor then may
form a pocket .at the top and halt the flow of gasoline.

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EXAMPLE5-8 Velocity Measurement by a Pitot Tube
A piezometer and a Pitot tube are tapped into a horizontal water pipe, as shown
in Fig. 5-41, to measure static and stagnation (static + dynamic) pressures. For
the indicated water column heights, determine the velocity at the center of the
pipe,
SOLUTION The static and stagnation pressures in a horizontal pipe are
measured. The velocity at the center of the pipe is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 Points 1 and 2 are
close enough together that the irreversible energy loss between these two points
is negligible, and thus we can use the Bernoulli equation.
Analysis We take points 1 and 2 along the centerline of the pipe, with point 1
directly under the piezometer and point 2 at the tip of the Pitot tube. This is a
FIGURE 5-41 Schematic
steady flow with straight and parallel streamlines, and the gage pressures at for Example 5-8.
points 1 and 2 can be expressed as

Pi = pg(hi + hz)

P, = pgpi, + h2 + hj

Noting that point 2 is a stagnation point and thus V2 = 0 and zx = z2, the
application of the Bernoulli equation between points 1 and 2 gives

P, V? ^ _P2 V^0 V, _ P2 - P,
rt+2i + f'~S+2i V, - 2^—
Substituting the Px and P2 expressions gives

V I2 _ p? - Pi _ f>g(h, + h2 + hi) - f,g(h, + hj _

2g pg pg 3

Solving for \Jl and substituting,

V, = V 2gih = \ 2(9.81 m/s^O.^m) = 1.53 m/s

Discussion Note that to determine the flow velocity, all we need is to measure
the height of the excess fluid column in the Pitot tube.

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EXAMPLE 5-10 Bernoulli Equation for Compressible Flow
Derive the Bernoulli equation when the compressibility effects are not negligible for an
ideal gas undergoing (a) an isothermal process and (b) an isen-tropic process.

SOLUTION The Bernoulli equation for compressible flow is to be obtained for an ideal
gas for isothermal and isentropic processes.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and frictional effects are negligible. 2 The fluid is an
ideal gas, so the relation P = pRT is applicable. 3 The specific heats are constant so that
P/pk = constant during an isentropic process. Analysis (a) When the compressibility
effects are significant and the flow cannot be assumed to be incompressible, the Bernoulli
equation is given by Eq. 5-40 as

" dP V2
1)
— + ~2 + gz = constant (along a streamline)
(

The compressibility effects can be properly accounted for by expressing p in terms of

pressure, and then performing the integration JdP/p in Eq. 1. But this requires a relation
between P and p for the process. For the isothermal expansion or compression of an
ideal gas, the integral in Eq. 1 can be performed easily by noting that T = constant and
substituting p = PIRT. It gives

" dP j
dP
= RT In P
P J
Substituting into Eq. 1 gives the desired relation,
P/RT
V!
Isothermal process: RT In P + 2 + gz = constant (2)

(b) A more practical case of compressible flow is the isentropic flow of ideal gases
through equipment that involves high-speed fluid flow such as nozzles, diffusers, and the
passages between turbine blades. Isentropic (i.e., reversible and adiabatic) flow is closely
approximated by these devices, and it is characterized by the relation Plpk = C = constant,
where k is the specific heat ratio of the gas. Solving for p from Plpk = C gives p = C~llkPllk.
Performing the integration,

D 1ft+1 p 1A p-lfllt+1
dP 1A 1 _ p
ci/kp-m C|P = 13)
-i/k +1 ~p~ - i/k +1
j P

Substituting, the Bernoulli equation for steady, isentropic, compressible flow of an ideal
gas becomes

Isentropic flow:
(rh)!>+T ~ sz - “nstam (4a)

(4b)

A common practical situation involves the acceleration of a gas from rest (stagnation
conditions at state 1) with negligible change in elevation. In that case we have z1 = z2 and
Vj = 0. Noting that p = P/RT for ideal
gases, Plpk = constant for isentropic flow, and the Mach number is defined as Ma = V/c
where c = VkRT is the local speed of sound for ideal gases, Eq. 4b simplifies to

Pi
P2 (4c)

where state 1 is the stagnation state and state 2 is any state along the flow. Discussion It
can be shown that the results obtained using the compressible and incompressible
equations deviate no more than 2 percent when the Mach number is less than 0.3.
Therefore, the flow of an ideal gas can be considered to be incompressible when Ma ^ 0.3.
For atmospheric air at normal conditions, this corresponds to a flow speed of about 100 m/s
or 360 km/h, which covers our range of interest.

Reference:
Cimbala, John M., and Yunus A. £engel. Essentials of fluid mechanics: fundamentals and applications. McGraw-Hill
Higher Education, 2008.

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