Geological Time - really, really, really long!

Motion pictures are generally projected at 32

frames per second. Therefore, each frame
(image) is on the screen for only split second-
let each frame represent 100 years.
Start movie at present and go back in time.
•The Declaration of Independence would show
up 1/16 of a second into the movie.
•The Christian era (BC-AD boundary) would be
3/4 of a second into the movie.
•The most recent Ice Age would be 7 seconds
into it.
•The movie would run about 6 hours before we
got to the end of the Mesozoic era (extinction
of the dinosaurs).
•We'd have to watch the movie for about 2
days to see the beginning of the Paleozoic era
(macroscopic life).
 QuickTime™ and a
TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
 Geologic Time
•
Two ways to relate time in geology
>Relative
: Placing events in a
sequence based on their positions
in the geologic record.
>Chronologic
: Placing a specific
number of years on an event or roc
sample.
 Geologic Time Scale
a•combination of the two types of age
determinations
> arelative
sequence of lithologic units
established
- using logical principles
measured
> against a framework of
chronologicdates.
ologic Time and the "geologic column"
•
Developed
Developed using
using logicallogical rules to
rules to establish establish
relative
sequences of events
relative sequences of events
-superposition
-
cross-cutting relationships
-
original horizontality
-lateral continuity

Added
• to as new information is obtained and
data is refined
refined
Use
- of fossils for correlation and age determinati
•
Numerical Dates attached to strata after the
development
- of Radiometric techniques
Still being refined as more
information
becomes available
The Geologic Time Scale (1:2)
The Geologic Time Scale (2:2)
Relative Dating Methods
•
etermines the relative sequence of even
>
which came first, which came last.
no
> numeric age assigned

6• Relative age principles:

>Superposition >Original Horizontality,
>Lateral continuity Cross-cutting
> Relationships
>Inclusions >Fossil succession.

Those in yellow are most useful

History of Historical Geology
• Niels Stensen (Nicolaus Steno)
- Fundamental Principles of Relative Time
> Principle of Superposition- see below
> Principle of Original Horizontality- see below
> Principle of Original Lateral Continuity- see below
 Law of Superposition
In
In• undisturbed
undisturbed strata,
strata, the
the layer
layer on
on the
the bottom
bottom is
is
oldest, those above are younger.
 Original Horizontality
Sediments
•• are generally deposited a
horizontal layers.

Lateral Continuity
Sediment
• layers extend laterally in a
irection until they thin & pinch out a
hey meet the edge of the deposition
asin.
Charles Lyell

• 1st Principles of Geology text

- included description and
use of
> principles
principles of cross-cutting
of cross-cutting relationships
relationships
> principles of inclusions
• relative time tools
 Cross-cutting Relationships

That which cuts through is younger than the

Object that is cut

dike cuts through

granite is cut
elative Ages of Lava Flows and Sil
 Principle of Inclusions
Inclusions
• (one rock type contained in another rock type) are
older than the rock they are embedded in. That is, the younger
rock contains the inclusions
Principle of
Inclusions
 Faunal/Floral Succession
••
Fossil assemblages (groupings of fossils)
succeed one another through time.
• Correlation-
relating rocks in one location to those in
another using relative age stratigraphic
principles
-Faunal Succession
-- Superposition
--Lateral Continuity
-- Cross-cutting
Unconformities
• surfaces
represent a long time.
a time when rocks were not
deposited or
a time when rocks were
eroded
Hiatus
the gap in time represented
in the rocks by an uncon-
formity
3 kinds
Angular Unconformity
Nonconformity
Disconformity
 Disconformities
A surface of erosion or non-deposition betwee
Parallel sedimentary rock beds
of differing ages.
 Angular Unconformities
• An
angular unconformity is an erosional surface on tilted
or folded strata, over which younger strata have been deposited.
 Nonconformities
A
nonconformity is an erosional surface on igneous or
metamorphic rocks which are overlain by sedimentary rocks.
Breakout in to groups and discuss the sequence
observed here
Age Estimates of Earth
Counting lifetimes in the Bible
Comparing cooling rates of iron pellets.

Determine sedimentation rates & compare

Estimate age based on salinity of the ocean.

all age estimates were off by billions of yea
some were more off than others!
 Absolute Dating Methods
Radioactive Decay sequences
acts as an atomic clock
we see the clock at the end of its cycle
analogous to starting a stopwatch
allows assignment of numerical dates to
rocks.
> Radioactive isotopes change (decay) into
daughter isotopes at known rates.
rates vary with the isotope
+
+ 235 40 14
e.g., U , K , C, etc.
 Decay
unstable nuclei in parent isotope emits
subatomic particles and transform into
another isotopic element (daughter).
does so at a known rate, measured in the
lab

• Half-life
The amount of time needed for one-half of a
radioactive parent to decay into daughter
isotope.

Assumptions?-you bet
Cross-checks ensure validity of method.
 Rate of Decay
All atoms are parent isotope or some
t0 known ratio of parent to daughter

1 half-life period has elapsed, half of the

t1 material has changed to a daughter
isotope (6 parent: 6 daughter)

2 half-lives elapsed, half of the parent

t 2 remaining is transformed into a daughter
isotope (3 parent: 9 daughter)

3 half-lives elapsed, half of the parent

remaining is transformed into a daughter
t 3 isotope (1.5 parent: 10.5 daughter)
We would see the rock at this point.
Radioactive Isotopes
analogous
• to sand in an hour glass
we- measure how much sand there is
>represents the
mass of elements
we- measure the ratio of sand in the bottom to sand in the top
- the end (present)
at
daughter
> (b) and parent (t)
we- know at what rate the sand falls into the bottom
the
> half life of the radioactive element
how- long would it take to get the amount sand in the observed
ratio starting with all of it in the top?

100
% parent remaining

Parent
50 Daughter

25
13
time----------->
 Five Radioactive Isotope Pairs
Effective Dating Range Minerals and
Isotopes Half-Life of Parent (Years) Rocks That Can
Parent Daughter (Years) Be Dated
Uranium 238 Lead 206 4.5 billion 10 million to Zircon
4.6 billion Uraninite
Uranium 235 Lead 207 704 million
Muscovite
Thorium 232 Lead 208 14 billion 48.8 billion Biotite
Potassium feldspar
Rubidium 87 Strontium 87 4.6 billion 10 million to Whole metamorphic
4.6 billion or igneous rock

Potassium 40 Argon 40 1.3 billion 100,000 to Glauconite

4.6 billion Muscovite
Biotite
Hornblende
Whole volcanic rock
Radiocarbon and Tree-
Ring Dating Methods
Carbon-14
•• dating is based on the
ratio of C-14 to C-12in an organic
sample.
Valid
>
Valid
> only for
only for samples
samples less
less than
than 70,000
70,000
years old.
years old.
Living
>
Living
> things take
things take in
in both
both isotopes
isotopes of
of
carbon.
carbon.
When
>
When
> the organism
the organism dies,
dies, the
the "clock"
"clock" starts.
starts.

Method can be validated by cross-checking with

tree rings
Carbon 14 Cycle
ecognizing Patterns of change
Walther's Law
The
• vertical sequence is repeated by the horizont
sequence

walking
- from A to B to C to the Coast you would encounter
ocks that would be encountered by drilling a core into the
earth at any point (A, B, or C)
Facies Diagram
distribution
• of lithofacies (rock-types)
these
- are associated with their respective EOD
biofacies
• are similar but refer to fossils rather th
rock types
stasy, relative sea-level, and relative positi
of lithofacies
Eustasy=
• changes in volume of water in ocean
lithofacies
• depend on
- sea-level
- land level
-geometry of coast
-sediment supply

Vail Curve
an
• attempt at global
•correlation of
lithologies
-for better production
of
- petroleum resources
Rock designations
• units called Lithostratigraphic units
Rock
described
- in terms of Group, Formation, & Member
each
> term has specific meanings in geological parlance
•Formation
a -mappable lithostratigraphic unit
has
> a location for identifying the type-section
has
> a rock designation describing the lithology
sometimes
- not all the same lithology
in which
> case the term "Formation" takes the place of lithologi
type
•
Groups are composed of several formations
•
Members are distinctive units within a formation
group
- is largest and contains formations and members
formations
- are next and contain members
Fundamental lithological units
Formation- a rock layer with distinctive
characteristics that is mappable over a large are at
“typical” map scales
1:62,500 or more commonly 1:24,000
Formations have Members
smaller layers that are unique that are not
mappable over larger areas and won’t show up at
typical map scales
Groups have formations; formations have members