Lecture 8: SQL

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History of Structured Query
Language
 SQL was first implemented in IBM’s System R
in the late 1970’s.
 SQL is the de-facto standard query language
for creating and manipulating data in
relational databases.
 Some minor syntax differences, but the
majority of SQL is standard across MS Access,
MS SQL Server, Oracle, Sybase, MySQL,
Postgres, Informix, etc.
 SQL is either specified by a command-line tool
or is embeddedinto a general purpose
programming language such as Cobol, “C”,
Pascal, Java, C++, etc.
Objectives of SQL
 SQL is relatively easy to learn:

 it is non-procedural - you specify what information

you require, rather than how to get it;
 it is essentially free-format.
 Consists of standard English words:
1) CREATE TABLE Staff(staffNo VARCHAR(5),
lName VARCHAR(15),
salary DECIMAL(7,2));
2) INSERT INTO Staff VALUES (‘SG16’, ‘Brown’, 8300);
3) SELECT staffNo, lName, salary
FROM Staff
WHERE salary > 10000;
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History of Structured Query
Language

 SQL is a standardized language monitored by

the American National Standards Institute
(ANSI) as well as by National Institute of
Standards (NIST).
 ANSI 1990 – SQL 1 standard
 ANSI 1992 – SQL 2 Standard (sometimes called
SQL-92)
 ANSI 1999 – SQL 1999 – adds regular expressions,
triggers, some Object oriented concepts
 ANSI 2003 – SQL 2003 – XML features,
autogenerated data (e.g., autoint)
 ANSI 2006 – SQL 2006 – Further XML Integration
using XQuery, XPath, etc.
Components of SQL
 SQL has two major parts:
 Data Definition Language (DDL)
 – Used to create (define) data structures such as tables,
indexes, clusters
 Data Manipulation Language (DML)
 – Used to insert, update, delete and retrieve (select)
data from tables.
Structured Query Language (SQL)
Data Types
 When creating tables in a database schema,
we need to specify the data type for each
column of the table.
 For example, if we need to store a salary or a
date of birth, we need to choose the right data
type that is supported by our target DBMS.
 Each vendor’s implementation of SQL uses
slightly different names for the data types.

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SQL Numeric Data Types
 Integers: INTEGER (INT) or SMALLINT
 Integer: 4 bytes
 Smallint: 2 bytes
 Real ints: FLOAT, REAL, DOUBLE, PRECISION
 Formatted ints: DECIMAL(i,j), NUMERIC(i,j)
SQL Character String Data Types
 Two main types: Fixed length and variable length.
 Fixed length of n characters: CHAR(n) or
CHARACTER(n)
 Variable length up to size n: VARCHAR(n)
Literals
 All non-numeric literals must be enclosed in
single quotes (e.g. ‘London’).

 All numeric literals must not be enclosed in

quotes (e.g. 650.00).

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SQL Date and Time Data Types
 Implementations vary widely for these data types.
 DATE: Has 10 positions in the format: YYYY-MM-DD
 TIME: Has 8 positions in the format: HH:MM:SS
 TIME(i): Defines the TIME data type with an additional i positions
for fractions of a second.
 For example:HH:MM:SS:dd
 Offset from UTZ. +/- HH:MM
 TIMESTAMP: Records an instant in time using full date and time
with fractions of sections.
 INTERVAL: Used to specify some span of time measured in days or
minutes, etc.
 Other ways of expressing dates:
 Store as characters or integers with Year, Month Day:19972011
 Store as Julian date:1997283
 MS Access, SQL Server and Oracle store date and time information
together in a DATE or Date/Time data type.
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Examples of SQL Data Types for
Some Popular RDBMS
Data Type Storage Size Range of Values
Byte 1 byte 0 to 255
 Data types Boolean 2 bytes True or False.

most often Integer

Long (long integer)
2 bytes
4 bytes
-32,768 to 32,767.
-2,147,483,648 to

used are 2,147,483,647.

-3.402823E38 to -1.401298E-
45 for negative values;
shown Single(single-precision
floating-point)
4 bytes 1.401298E-45 to
3.402823E38 for
in Bold positive values.
-1.79769313486232E308 to -
letters 4.94065645841247E-324 for
Double (double- negative values;
8 bytes
precision floating-point) 4.94065645841247E-324 to
1.79769313486232E308 for
positive values.
-922,337,203,685,477.5808
Currency (scaled
8 bytes to
integer)
922,337,203,685,477.5807.
January 1, 100 to December
Date 8 bytes
31, 9999.
Object 4 bytes Any Object reference.
0 to approx. 2 billion (approx.
10 bytes + string
String (variable-length) 65,400 for MS Windows
length
version 3.1).
String (fixed-length) Length of string 1 to approximately 65,400.
11 Any numeric value up to the
Variant (with ints) 16 bytes
range of a Double.
Oracle supports the following data
types:
 Numeric: BINARY_NumberEGER, DEC,
DECIMAL, DOUBLE PRECISION, FLOAT, INT,
INTEGER, NATURAL, NATURALN, int, NUMERIC,
PLS_NumberEGER, POSITIVE, POSITIVEN,
REAL, SMALLINT
 Date: DATE Note: Also stores time.
 Character: CHAR, CHARACTER, STRING,
VARCHAR, VARCHAR2
 Others: BOOLEAN, LONG, LONG RAW, RAW

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Structured Query Language (SQL)
Data Definition Language
 DDL is used to define the schema of the
database.
 Create a database schema
 Create, Drop or Alter a table
 Create or Drop an Index
 Define Integrity constraints
 Define access privileges to users
 Define access privileges on objects
 SQL2 specification supports the creation of
multiple schemas per database each with a
distinct owner and authorized users.

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CREATE TABLE
CREATE TABLE TableName
{(colName dataType [NOT NULL]
[UNIQUE]
[DEFAULT defaultOption]
[CHECK searchCondition] [,...]}
[PRIMARY KEY (listOfColumns),]
{[UNIQUE (listOfColumns),] […,]}
{[FOREIGN KEY (listOfFKColumns)
REFERENCES ParentTableName
[(listOfCKColumns)],
[ON UPDATE referentialAction]
[ON DELETEPearson
referentialAction
Education © 2014
]] [,…]} 14
 1..1 1..*
Department Employees

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Creating a Schema
 Creating a Table:
 CREATE TABLE employee (
employeeid VARCHAR(10) NOT NULL,
last_name VARCHAR(20) NOT NULL,
first_name VARCHAR(18) NOT NULL,
soc_sec VARCHAR(11) NOT NULL,
date_of_birth DATE,
salary int,
departmentid int
 );
 CREATE TABLE department (
departmentid int NOT NULL,
department_name VARCHAR(30) NOT NULL,
department_location VARCHAR(30)
 );

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IEF - Entity Integrity
 Primary key of a table must contain a unique,
non-null value for each row.
 ISO standard supports FOREIGN KEY clause in
CREATE and ALTER TABLE statements:

PRIMARY KEY(staffNo)
PRIMARY KEY(clientNo, propertyNo)

 Can only have one PRIMARY KEY clause per

table. Can still ensure uniqueness for
alternate keys using UNIQUE:

UNIQUE(telNo) 17
IEF - Referential Integrity
 FK is column or set of columns that links each
row in child table containing foreign FK to row
of parent table containing matching PK.
 Referential integrity means that, if FK contains
a value, that value must refer to existing row
in parent table.
 ISO standard supports definition of FKs with
FOREIGN KEY clause in CREATE :

FOREIGN KEY(branchNo) REFERENCES Branch

(column_name)

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Creating a Schema with primary
key (1)
 Creating a Table:
 CREATE TABLE employee (
employeeid VARCHAR(10) NOT NULL,
last_name VARCHAR(20) NOT NULL,
first_name VARCHAR(18) NOT NULL,
soc_sec VARCHAR(11) NOT NULL,
date_of_birth DATE,
salary int,
departmentid int,
PRIMARY KEY (employeeid),
FOREIGN KEY (departmentid) REFERENCES department (departmentid)
 );
 CREATE TABLE department (
departmentid int NOT NULL,
department_name VARCHAR(30) NOT NULL,
department_location VARCHAR(30),
PRIMARY KEY (departmentid)
 );

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Creating a Schema with primary
key (2)
 Creating a Table:
 CREATE TABLE employee ( Adding primary key :
employeeid VARCHAR(10) NOT NULL, ALTER TABLE department
last_name VARCHAR(20) NOT NULL, ADD CONSTRAINT pk_department
first_name VARCHAR(18) NOT NULL, PRIMARY KEY (departmentid);
soc_sec VARCHAR(11) NOT NULL,
date_of_birth DATE, Adding primary key :
salary int, ALTER TABLE employee
departmentid int ADD CONSTRAINT pk_employee
 ); PRIMARY KEY (employeeid)
 CREATE TABLE department (
departmentid int NOT NULL,Adding foreign key:
department_name ALTER TABLE employee
VARCHAR(30) NOT NULL,
department_location VARCHAR(30) ADD CONSTRAINT fk_employee
 ); FOREIGN KEY (departmentid)
REFERENCES department (departmentid)

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21
 Specifying Primary and Foreign
keys
CREATE TABLE order_header (
order_Number int NOT NULL,
order_date DATE,
sales_person VARCHAR(25),
bill_to VARCHAR(35),
bill_to_address VARCHAR(45),
bill_to_city VARCHAR(20),
bill_to_state VARCHAR(2),
bill_to_zip VARCHAR(10),
CONSTRAINT pk_order_header PRIMARY KEY (order_Number)
);

CREATE TABLE order_items (

order_Number int NOT NULL,
line_item int NOT NULL,
part_Number VARCHAR(12) NOT NULL,
quantity int,
price int,
CONSTRAINT pk_order_items PRIMARY KEY (order_Number, line_item),
CONSTRAINT fk_order_items FOREIGN KEY (order_Number)
REFERENCES order_header (order_Number)
); 22
Specifying Constraints on Columns
and Tables
 We apply constraints on columns so that we
can ensure good data is added into the
database and the amount of NULL values is
minimized
 Constraints on Columns:
 NOT NULL – Attribute may not take a NULL value
 DEFAULT – Store a given default value if no value is
specified
 PRIMARY KEY – Indicate which column(s) form the
primary key
 FOREIGN KEY – Indicate which column(s) form a
foreign key. This enforces referential integrity
 UNIQUE – Indicates which column(s) must have
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unique values.
Referential Integrity Constraint:
 Specify the behavior for child tuples when a
parent tuple is modified.
 Action to take if referential integrity is
violated:
 SET NULL – Child tuples foreign key is set to NULL
– Orphans.
 SET DEFAULT – Set the value of the foreign key to
some default value.
 CASCADE – Child tuples are updated (or deleted)
according to the action take on the parent tuple.

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Examples of ON DELETE and ON
UPDATE.
 CREATE TABLE order_items (
order_Number int NOT NULL,
line_item int NOT NULL,
part_Number VARCHAR(12) NOT NULL,
quantity int,
CONSTRAINT pk_order_items PRIMARY KEY
(order_Number, line_item),
CONSTRAINT fk_order_items FOREIGN KEY
(order_Number) REFERENCES order_header
(order_Number)
ON DELETE SET NULL
 );
25Or adding ON UPDATE CASCADE
 0..*

1..1
Parts

Part_Number

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Assuming we have a “Parts” table
CREATE TABLE parts (
part_Number VARCHAR(12) NOT
NULL,
part_description VARCHAR(25) ,
part_price int,
CONSTRAINT pk_parts
PRIMARY KEY (part_Number)
);

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Adding constraints:
CREATE TABLE order_items (
order_Number int NOT NULL,
line_item int NOT NULL,
part_Number VARCHAR(12) NOT NULL,
quantity int,
CONSTRAINT pk_order_items
PRIMARY KEY (order_Number,
line_item),
CONSTRAINT fk1_order_items
FOREIGN KEY (order_Number)
REFERENCES order_header
(order_Number)
ON DELETE SET NULL,
CONSTRAINT fk2_order_items
FOREIGN KEY (part_Number)
REFERENCES parts (part_Number)
ON DELETE SET NULL
);

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 Adding Constraints Later
CREATE TABLE order_header (
order_Number int NOT NULL,
order_date DATE,
sales_person VARCHAR(25),
bill_to VARCHAR(35),
bill_to_address VARCHAR(45),
bill_to_city VARCHAR(20),
bill_to_state VARCHAR(2),
bill_to_zip VARCHAR(10)
);

ALTER TABLE order_header

ADD CONSTRAINT pk_order_header
PRIMARY KEY (order_Number);

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 CREATE TABLE order_items (
order_Number int(10,0) NOT NULL,
line_item int(4,0) NOT NULL,
part_Number VARCHAR(12) NOT NULL,
quantity int(4,0)
);

ALTER TABLE order_items ADD

CONSTRAINT pk_order_items
PRIMARY KEY (order_Number, line_item) ;

ALTER TABLE order_items ADD

CONSTRAINT fk1_order_items
FOREIGN KEY (order_Number)
REFERENCES order_header (order_Number)
ON DELETE SET NULL;

ALTER TABLE order_items ADD

CONSTRAINT fk2_order_items
FOREIGN KEY (part_Number)
REFERENCES parts (part_Number)
ON DELETE SET NULL; (on delete no action/ on delete restrict
leave it unchanged!)
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Creating indexes on table columns
 To speed up retrieval of orders given
order_Number:
 CREATE INDEX idx_order_Number ON
order_header (order_Number) ;
 To speed up retrieval of orders given sales
person:
 CREATE INDEX idx_sales_person ON
order_header (sales_person) ;
 We give the first part of the index name as
“idx” just as a convention.

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Exercise: Create Customer and
order Tables
Tables Names Data types Constraints
customer customerID int NOT NULL,
PRIMARY
Name VARCHAR(20) NOT NULL
AGE INT NOT NULL
Address CHAR(25)
Salary int

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ALTER TABLE
 Add a new column to a table.
 ALTER TABLE table_name
ADD column_name datatype;
 Drop a column from a table.
 ALTER TABLE "table_name" DROP "column_name";
 Add a new table constraint (a primary key).
ALTER TABLE order_header
ADD CONSTRAINT pk_order_header
PRIMARY KEY (order_Number);
 Drop a table constraint.
ALTER TABLE employee
DROP CONSTRAINT fk_department;
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Customer table
Step1 :
CREATE TABLE customer (
customer_id int NOT NULL
CONSTRAINT pk_customer PRIMARY KEY,
name VARCHAR(20) NOT NULL,
age INT,
address CHAR(25),
salary int
);
Step 2: Adding foreign key to order_header table
a. Add customer_id column
ALTER TABLE order_header
ADD COLUMN customer_id int;
b. Add foreign key
ALTER TABLE order_header
ADD CONSTRAINT fk_order_header FOREIGN KEY (customer_id)
REFERENCES customer(customer_id)
ON DELETE SET NULL;
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Removing Schema Components
with DROP
DROP SCHEMA schema_name CASCADE
Drop the entire schema including all tables. CASCADE option
deletes all data, all tables, indexes, domains, etc.
DROP SCHEMA schema_name RESTRICT
Removes the schema only if it is empty.
DROP TABLE table_name
Remove the table and all of its data.
DROP TABLE table_name CASCADE
Remove the table and all related tables as specified by FOREIGN
KEY constraints.
DROP TABLE table_name RESTRICT
Remove the table only if it is not referenced (via a FOREIGN KEY
constraint) by other tables.
DROP INDEX index_name
Removes an index.
DROP CONSTRAINT table_name.constraint_name
Removes a constraint from a table.
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Changing Schema Components
with ALTER
 Changing Column data type:
 ALTER TABLE student ALTER last_name
VARCHAR(35);
 Dropping a default value:
 ALTER TABLE student ALTER gpa DROP DEFAULT
 Adding a new default value to a column:
 ALTER TABLE student ALTER gpa SET DEFAULT
0.00;
 Adding Attributes/Columns to an existing
table:
 ALTER TABLE student ADD admission DATE;
Removing Attributes (not widely
implemented):
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 Practice 1
Tables Columns Datatype Constraints
order_header order_Number int(10,0) NOT NULL, primary key
order_date DATE
sales_person VARCHAR(25)
bill_to VARCHAR(35)
bill_to_address VARCHAR(45)
bill_to_city VARCHAR(20)
bill_to_state VARCHAR(2)
bill_to_zip VARCHAR(10)
order_items order_Number int(10,0) NOT NULL, primary key
line_item int(4,0) NOT NULL
part_Number VARCHAR(12) NOT NULL
quantity int(4,0)
part part_Number VARCHAR(12) NOT NULL primary
part_description VARCHAR(25) x
part_price int

1. Drop all tables

2. For Order_Item table:
Foreign key:order_Number on delete SET NULL
Foreign key 2: part int ON DELETE SET NULL;

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 Adding Constraints Later
DROP TABLE order_header ;

CREATE TABLE order_header (

order_Number int(10,0) NOT NULL,
order_date DATE,
sales_person VARCHAR(25),
bill_to VARCHAR(35),
bill_to_address VARCHAR(45),
bill_to_city VARCHAR(20),
bill_to_state VARCHAR(2),
bill_to_zip VARCHAR(10)
);
ALTER TABLE order_header
ADD CONSTRAINT pk_order_header
PRIMARY KEY (order_Number);

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 CREATE TABLE order_items (
order_Number int(10,0) NOT NULL,
line_item int(4,0) NOT NULL,
part_Number VARCHAR(12) NOT NULL,
quantity int(4,0)
);

ALTER TABLE order_items ADD

CONSTRAINT pk_order_items
PRIMARY KEY (order_Number, line_item) ;

ALTER TABLE order_items ADD

CONSTRAINT fk1_order_items
FOREIGN KEY (order_Number)
REFERENCES order_header (order_Number)
ON DELETE SET DEFAULT
ON UPDATE CASCADE;

ALTER TABLE order_items ADD

CONSTRAINT fk2_order_items
FOREIGN KEY (part_Number)
REFERENCES parts (part_Number)
ON DELETE SET DEFAULT
39 ON UPDATE CASCADE;
Practice 1
1..1 1..1
Bike Rental Customer
1..* 1..*

Tables Columns Date Types Constraints

Bike Bike_id int (10,0) NOT NULL, primary
Description Varchar(250) key
Cost_per_hour int
Customer DriverLicence Varchar(250) NOT NULL, primary
Lname Varchar(250) key
Fname Varchar(250)
Address Varchar(250)
City Varchar(250)
State Varchar(250)
Zip Varchar(250)
Telephone Varchar(250)
Credit_card_no int
Rental Driver_license Varchar(150) NOT NULL, primary
Date Date key
Bike_id int NOT NULL, primary
Time_out Date key
Time_in Datetime NOT NULL, primary
40 key
NOT NULL