SEM

(SCANNING
ELECTRON
MICROSCOPE)
Presented by:
 Mahnoor
 BS Chemistry 7th semester
 GEF21EBSCH004
INTRODUCTION:
 The scanning electron microscope (SEM) is one of the most versatile
instruments available for the examination and analysis of the
microstructure morphology and chemical composition characterizations.
 It is necessary to know the basic principles of light optics in order to
understand the fundamentals of electron microscopy.
 The unaided eye can discriminate objects to a resolution of ~0.1 mm (at
the optimum viewing distance of 25 cm).
 Optical microscopy has the limit of resolution of ~2,000 Å by enlarging the
visual angle through optical lens. Light microscopy has been, and continues
to be, of great importance to scientific research.
 Since the discovery that electrons can be deflected by the magnetic field in
numerous experiments in the 1890s, electron microscopy has been
developed by replacing the light source with high energy electron beam.
CONT.
 In the 1930s, scientists built the first transmission electron microscope
(TEM) by replacing the light source with an electron beam and using
electromagnetic coils instead of traditional lenses.
 The scanning electron microscope (SEM) uses a focused electron beam to
scan the surface of a sample, producing signals that are turned into a
visual image on a screen.
 RESOLUTION AND
ABBE’S EQUATION:
 The limit of resolution is the smallest distance at which two structures can still
be seen as separate objects.
 Ernst Abbe showed that this limit depends on the wavelength of the light used.
 If you use a light with a wavelength that is too long, the image becomes blurry.
 Due to diffraction and interference, a point of light can’t be focused into a
perfect dot.
 Instead, it appears as a larger disk made of concentric circles of decreasing
intensity, called an Airy disk.
 Most of the light (about 84%) is in the central part of this disk, and the rest is in
the outer rings.
 The size of the Airy disk is measured from the center of the bright spot to the
first dark ring.
CONT.
 When the centers of two such bright spots are separated by at least the
radius of the Airy disk, you can see them as two distinct objects.
 This concept is explained by Abbe’s equation:
CONT.
 In the 1930s, scientists built the first transmission electron microscope
(TEM) by replacing the light source with an electron beam and using
electromagnetic coils instead of traditional lenses.
 The scanning electron microscope (SEM) uses a focused electron beam to
scan the surface of a sample, producing signals that are turned into a
visual image on a screen.
IMAGE FORMATION IN
SEM:
 The process of forming an image in a Scanning Electron
Microscope (SEM) relies on the signals produced when the
electron beam interacts with the sample.
 These interactions can be divided into two main types:
 Elastic interactions
 Inelastic interactions.
ELASTIC INTERACTION:
 Elastic scattering happens when the incoming electron is deflected by the
atomic nucleus or the outer shell electrons of the sample without losing
much energy.
 This type of scattering changes the direction of the electron significantly. If
these electrons are scattered back at an angle greater than 90 degrees,
 They are called backscattered electrons (BSE).
 These BSE are useful for creating images of the sample.
INELASTIC INTERACTION:
 Inelastic scattering occurs when the incoming electron transfers a
significant amount of energy to the atoms in the sample.
 The energy loss varies depending on whether the electrons in the sample
are excited individually or collectively and the binding energy of the
electrons to the atoms.
 When the sample's electrons are excited during the ionization of its atoms,
secondary electrons (SE) are generated.
 These SE, with energies less than 50 electron volts (eV), can be used to
image or analyze the sample.
SECONDARY ELECTRON
EMISSION IN SEM:
 When the primary electron beam strikes a specimen's surface, it can cause
the atoms in the material to lose loosely bound electrons, which are known
as secondary electrons.
 These electrons have low energy, usually around 3–5 eV, which means they
can only escape from a region very close to the surface, typically within a
few nanometers.
 This property makes secondary electrons useful for providing detailed
topographic information about the surface of the specimen.
 Secondary electrons are easily attracted to a detector that has an applied
bias.
 In most Scanning Electron Microscopes (SEMs), the Everhart-Thornley (ET)
detector is used to collect these secondary electrons.
 A high bias of +10 kV applied to the scintillator, which surrounds the
detector.
 The scintillator converts the energy of the secondary electrons into visible
light photons, which then travel through a light pipe and reach a
photomultiplier tube (PMT).
 The PMT converts the light back into electrons, and the signal is amplified
before being displayed on the SEM's screen.
ROLE OF SECONDARY
ELECTRONS IN SEM IMAGING:
 Secondary electrons are mainly used for creating topographic images of
the specimen, showing surface texture and roughness.
 The image quality depends on how many of these secondary electrons
reaches the detector.
 While many secondary electrons may be generated, only those that make
it to the detector contribute to the image.
 Areas where secondary electrons are blocked or have difficulty reaching
the detector will appear darker, creating a shadow effect.
LOW VOLTAGE ELECTRONS
FOR SURFACE DETAIL:
 Using low voltage electrons for imaging can provide more detailed
information about the very surface of the specimen.
 These electrons interact primarily with the surface layer, which helps to
reveal fine structural details, enhancing the quality of the surface
information in the SEM image.
DETECTION OF BACKSCATTERED
ELECTRONS (BSES) IN SEM:
 Backscattered Electrons (BSEs) are another useful signal in Scanning
Electron Microscopy (SEM), providing both compositional and topographic
information.
 A BSE is an electron that has interacted with the specimen, scattering
once or multiple times, and then escapes with energy greater than 50 eV.
 When the electron collides elastically with the specimen’s atomic nucleus,
it bounces back, changing direction at a wide angle.
 Around 10–50% of the incident beam electrons are backscattered, and
these electrons typically retain 60–80% of their original energy.
ATOMIC NUMBER
CONTRAST WITH BSES:
 The amount of backscattering depends on the atomic number of the
specimen.
 Elements with higher atomic numbers have positively charged nuclei that
attract more electrons, causing more electrons to be backscattered.
 This leads to a higher backscattered signal.
 The backscattering yield, which is the percentage of electrons that are
reemitted by the sample, varies with the atomic number.
 For example, carbon (a light element) has a BSE yield of around 6%, while
tungsten or gold (heavier elements) have yields of about 50%.
 This variation in backscattered electron yield allows for atomic number
contrast in SEM images.
RESOLUTION AND DEPTH OF
INFORMATION FROM BSES:
 Since BSEs have higher energy, they cannot be absorbed by the sample
and thus come from a much larger region within the specimen compared to
secondary electrons.
 As a result, the lateral resolution of a BSE image is poorer (about 1.0 µm)
compared to the much finer resolution of secondary electron images
(around 10 nm).
 However, the larger escape depth of BSEs means they can provide
information from deeper layers within the specimen, making them useful
for studying features below the surface.
 In flat samples, BSEs can produce a topographical image that is different
from that created by secondary electrons.
BSE DETECTOR SETUP:
 The BSE detector differs from the one used for secondary electrons.
 It does not use a biased Faraday cage to attract the electrons.
 In fact, the Faraday cage is often negatively biased to repel secondary
electrons, allowing only the BSEs traveling directly from the specimen to
the detector to contribute to the backscattered image.
 This setup ensures that the BSE signal is accurately captured.
ELECTRON BACKSCATTERED
DIFFRACTION (EBSD):
 An advanced technique called Electron Backscattered Diffraction (EBSD)
has been developed to analyze the crystal structure of various samples,
including nanosized crystals.
 This technique allows researchers to obtain detailed information about the
crystallographic orientation and structure of the specimen.
 CHARACTERISTIC X-RAYS
IN SEM:
 Another important signal produced when the primary electron beam interacts
with the specimen is characteristic x-rays.
 This technique is widely used in SEM for chemical analysis.
 When the primary electron knocks out an electron from an inner shell of an atom,
an electron from an outer shell may fall into the empty inner shell to balance the
charge.
 This process emits an x-ray photon, allowing the atom to return to its stable
state. Along with the characteristic x-ray peaks, there is also a continuous
background signal known as Bremsstrahlung or continuum x-rays.
 This background is caused by the deceleration of high-energy electrons as they
interact with the atom's electron cloud and nuclei.
 Though Bremsstrahlung is considered noise and usually removed during analysis,
it contains important information for understanding the emitted spectrum
AUGER ELECTRONS:
 Auger electrons are produced when an electron from the primary beam
ionizes an atom, causing an electron from an outer shell to fill the vacancy
in the inner shell.
 The energy released in this process is carried away by the Auger electron.
Since these electrons have characteristic energy, they can be used to
gather chemical information.
 Because of their low energy, Auger electrons only escape from the
specimen’s surface, usually within a few nanometers, making them ideal
for surface analysis.
CATHODOLUMINESCENCE
:
 Cathodoluminescence occurs when certain materials release energy in the
form of photons (which can be infrared, visible, or ultraviolet light) after the
primary electron beam causes electrons to recombine and fill vacancies
created by collisions with the specimen.
 These emitted photons can be detected using a light pipe and a
photomultiplier, similar to the setup for secondary electron detection.
 The resolution for images produced by cathodoluminescence is generally
about 50 nm.
TRANSMITTED
ELECTRONS:
 Transmitted electrons are another signal that can be used in SEM, but only
when the specimen is thin enough for the primary beam electrons to pass
through it (usually less than 1 µm thick).
 In this case, a detector positioned beneath the specimen captures the
transmitted electrons.
 This detector is similar to the secondary and BSE detectors, consisting of a
scintillator, light pipe, and photomultiplier.
 Transmitted electron imaging allows SEM to study the internal structure of
thin specimens. When combined with x-ray microanalysis, transmitted
electrons can also provide elemental information and distribution.