Unit-3 Processor & BIOS

Topics to be Discussed
• Processor
• Multi Core processors
• Co-Processor
• Cache Memory
• BIOS Components & Functions
 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
• The Central Processing Unit (CPU) or simply
processor is considered as the “brain” of any
computer. It is the most important component or
element of a computer system in terms of
computing power.
• It is located in the CPU socket onto the computer
motherboard. Sometimes, it is also called
a microprocessor.
• Either a fan or heat sink (usually both) is attached
from this component. This device draws away the
heat a processor produces
• Every computer has at least one central processing
unit or processor. This component performs most
of the calculations and performs 90 percent of all
the computer’s functions.
• A CPU or processor reads data, processes
(calculates) the data according to the program
instructions, and gives the results of the
calculations. The data in the instructions tells the
CPU processor what to do.
• The speed of processor is measured in MHz or GHz
• All the digital devices have processors(Mobile,
smart watches etc.)
These metal pins or dots establish the electrical
connection between the CPU and the
motherboard when inserted into the socket.
They allow the CPU to receive power and
communicate with other components on the
motherboard.
 Components or Parts of CPU (Central Processing Unit)

• A CPU involves three primary sections. They are as:

• Control unit (CU)
• Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU)
• Registers
• Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
• The arithmetic and logic unit is a specialized
circuit that performs mathematical calculations
and logical operations on the data.

• ALU can perform all the basic arithmetic functions,

such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division. In addition, the ALU handles logical
operations like AND, OR, and NOT, which are
essential for decision-making and data processing.
ALU can also perform complex tasks. A CPU may
have more than one ALU to carry put the specific
functions.
• Control Unit (CU)
• A control unit is an electronic circuit that is connected by all
the parts of a computer. The function of a control unit is to
coordinate all the processor’s activities and manage the flow
of information through the processor. It directs the flow of
data and instructions between different parts of a computer.
• The control unit receives the information from the input
devices, fetches the data and instructions from the memory,
and then reads each instruction to carry out appropriate
action. Remember that the control unit itself does not
execute any instruction but instructs to other parts of the
system, such as ALU, to do so.
• For instance, if an application program lets an instruction to
multiply three numbers, the control unit directs the task to
the ALU, which does the calculation.
• Registers
• Registers are a small specialized internal
memory within the CPU itself. They act as a
temporary storage area for storing data and
instructions during processing.

• Registers provide high-speed accessing to data

and execute instructions quickly. There are
various types of registers within the processor.
Each serves a specific purpose in the CPU’s
operation. They are as:
• Current instruction register (CIR): This register stores
the current instruction being decoded and executed.
• Accumulator (ACC): ALU uses this register to
temporarily store data during the calculation.
• Memory address register (MAR): This register stores
the address of the memory location currently being
read from or written to.
• Memory data register (MDR): This register stores the
data which has just read from the memory or data
which is about to be written to the memory.
• Program counter (PC): This register stores the address
where the next instruction is to be fetched.
• Status Register (SR): This register contains bits which
can be set or cleared depending on the operations.
• System Clock
• The system clock generates the timing signals
required for the synchronization of various CPU
operations. It generates clock pulses at a specific
frequency, commonly known as the clock speed.

• A clock speed determines the number of

instructions a CPU processor can execute per
second. A higher clock speed generally results in
faster processing, but it also affects power
consumption and heat generation.
• CPU packaging is used to control damage of the processor.

• A protective exterior packaging is supplied to the

actual microprocessor and its associated electronic circuits.
It's the packaging you see when looking at a processor, not
the microprocessor. The packaging of the manufacturer is
typically ceramic or plastic.

• The packaging structure links the processor's slot to the

motherboard interface.

• CPU Packaging Types Include LGA, PGA, And BGA.

• way of connecting to the motherboard is called packaging.

• 1. LGA
• The LGA stands for Land Grid Array or Flat Grid Array
Package.
• Typically, this package is used by common Intel desktop CPUs.
For example Intel from 775 all desktop processors, AMD and
other processors.
• The feature of this package is that the contacts are on the CPU
PCB and the whole back of the CPU is covered as a grid. The
motherboard provides the pins for the motherboard to
communicate with the CPU.
• 2. PGA
• PGA stands for “Pin Grid Array,” or “Pin Grid Array Package.”
• AMD’s main desktop CPU, the former MQ Mobile Core series,
essentially uses the PGA package. For example, most desktop
processors before the Intel 775 and most mobile processors
end in M, MQ; Almost all AMD home desktop processors.
• Unlike the LGA, the PGA focuses on the pins on the CPU PCB,
so you see a row of pins on the CPU and the motherboard
only needs to provide pins to connect
• PGA pins are stronger than LGA pins
• 3. BGA
• BGA stands for “Ball Grid Array”, or “Ball Grid Array package”.
• Currently, most Intel laptop CPUs and smartphone CPUs use
this package.
• With a BGA package, the pins are eliminated, replaced by tiny
copper pads, each with a tiny ball of solder held to it.
• Elimination of the pins saves the cost of the pins, plus pin
connections are less reliable than directly soldered
connections.
• Cache Memory
• Cache memory is a special type of high-speed
memory that helps to improve the CPU
performance. It serves as a buffer between the
CPU and main memory (RAM) that provides the
much faster data access than RAM. Cache
memory is closely located within the CPU itself.

• This memory stores frequently accessed data and

instructions, enabling faster retrieval and
reducing the CPU’s dependence on slower main
memory.
• CPU Operations
• The four primary Functions of a processor are fetch, decode,
execute and write back.
• Fetch- is the operation which receives instructions from program
memory from a systems RAM.
• Decode- is where the instruction is converted to understand
which other parts of the CPU are needed to continue the
operation. This is performed by the instruction decoder
• Execute- is where the operation is performed. Each part of the
CPU that is needed is activated to carry out the instructions.
• Write Back- the processor writes data to its local cache
first before writing that cached data to memory or
disk. The cached data is then only written to
memory or disk later in intervals as a background
task or as applications attempt to access the data.
• There are five types of general purpose
processors-
• Microcontroller( Reading I/P-Responding O/P)
• Microprocessor
• Embedded Processor(controls Mech/Elec Fun)
• DSP ( Digital Signal Processor: Analog/Digital)
• Media Processor ( Image/video/audio)
• CISC-Complex Instruction Set Computing
• Most PC's use CPU based on this architecture.
• For instance Intel and AMD CPU are based on
CISC architectures.
• Typically ClSC chips have a large amount of
different and complex instructions.
• The philosophy behind it is that hardware is
always faster than software therefore one
should make a powerful instruction set, which
provides programmers with assembly
instruction to do a lot with short program.
• RISC-Reduce Instruction Set Computing
• RISC chips evolved around the micl-1980 as a reaction at CISC
chips.
• The philosophy behind it is that almost no one uses complex
assembly language instructions as used by CISC- and people
mostly use compilers which never use complex instructions.
• Therefore fewer, simpler and faster instructions would be
better than the large complex and slower CISC instructions.
• However more instructions are needed to accomplish a task.
• Finally, it's easier to write powerful optimized compilers, since
fewer instructions exist.
• Apple for instance uses RISC chips.
• A processor that has more than one
core is called Multicore Processor.
• A multi-core processor's design enables
communication between all existing
cores, and they divide and assign all
processing duties appropriately.
• each core's processed data is through
back to the Motherboard by a single
common gateway once all of the
operations have been finished. In terms
of total performance this technique
beats a single core CPU.
• Multicore Processor is used in high graphics
games like Overwatch and Star Wars
Battlefront, and other 3D games.
• The multicore processor is more appropriate
used in video editing software like Adobe
Photoshop, and iMovie.
• Multicore Processor is used solidworks
with computer-aided design (CAD).
• Database servers also handled by multicore
CPU.
• Multicore CPU is used in high network traffic.
• Embedded systems can handle by multicore
processor.
• Advantages Of Multi Core Processor
• Improved Performance
- One of the primary advantages of multi-core processors is the
ability to execute multiple tasks simultaneously, leading to
improved performance. Each core in the processor can handle
its own set of instructions, allowing for parallel processing. This
capability enables faster execution of tasks
• Enhanced Multitasking
• With a multi-core processor, you can run multiple applications
or tasks concurrently without significant performance
degradation. Each core can be dedicated to a specific task,
allowing for smoother multitasking experiences.
• Efficient Resource Utilization
• Multi-core processors enable better utilization of system
resources
• Improved Responsiveness
• Multi-core processors can enhance the overall responsiveness
of a system. For example, even while running resource-
intensive tasks, other processes, such as system operations
and user interactions, can be allocated to separate cores
• Scalability
• This is particularly relevant for software designed to take
advantage of parallel processing, such as scientific
simulations, data analysis, and rendering applications.
• Power Efficiency
• Since each core can operate at lower clock speeds when idle
or performing lighter tasks, power consumption can be
optimized by dynamically adjusting the core utilization based
on the workload.
• What is Coprocessor?

– The Co-Processor is an optional plug-in component on the

motherboard.
– The primary advantage of using this chip is the increased
execution speed of program.
– The coprocessor permits a computer to carry out certain
operations much faster.
– A coprocessor can make a computer run 5 to l0 times faster in
some operation.
– The processor works in conjunction with the co-processor
when it is operating in the maximum mode.
– Operations performed by the co-processor may be floating
point arithmetic, graphics, signal processing, string processing,
encryption or I/O Interfacing with peripheral devices.
• The following figure represents the
architecture of the 8087 coprocessor
• The 8087 co-processor consists of
– Control Unit (CU) and
– Numeric Execution Unit (EU).
• Control Unit (CU) This unit is used to synchronize
the operation between the main processor and
co-processor. The control unit receives the
instruction opcode, and then it decodes the
instructional opcode and reads or writes
operands from memory. The control unit
provides the communication between the
processor and memory, and it also coordinates
the internal coprocessor execution.
• Numeric Execution Unit (EU) has eight data
register stacks, microcode control unit and a
programmable shifter.
• These units duplicate the functions performed
by the microprocessor control and ALU blocks.
• The 8087 NEU and CU can work
independently.
• The CU works to maintain synchronization
with the main 8086/8088 processor while the
NEU is performing numeric operations.
• Types of Coprocessor
• Intel 8087 Coprocessor
• Intel 8087 is a specially designed co-processor
that is used to perform mathematical
calculations that includes floating-point &
integer values. Sometimes, it is also known as
a numeric data processor & math processor.
• Motorola 68881
• Motorola 68881 is a coprocessor that is mainly
used with 2nd generation of Motorola
68K microprocessor like Motorola 68030 &
68020.
• Apple Motion Coprocessors
• The M-series coprocessors of Apple are known as motion
coprocessors which are used in Apple mobile devices.
• The M-series Apple coprocessors simply gather process &
store the data of the sensor even if the device is asleep &
applications can recover data once the device is again
powered up. So this decreases the power drawn from the
device & saves the life of the battery.
• The applications of coprocessors include the following.
• The co-processor is used to perform some of the more specialized
tasks such as graphical display processing or complex mathematical
calculations.
• A co-processor is simply used for reducing the burden on the CPU of
a computer.
• This processor works with the CPU of the computer side-by-side.
• This processor performs high-level mathematical operations much
faster as compared to the main processor like roots, logarithms,
trigonometry functions, etc.
• A coprocessor increases the primary processor’s functions.
• The coprocessor performs different operations like signal processing,
floating-point arithmetic, string processing, graphics, I/O interfacing
through peripheral devices, cryptography, etc.
• These processors are stand-alone chips in earlier desktop computers
that were connected to the motherboard.
• A coprocessor handles the CPU tasks for boosting overall
performance.
Processor Co-processor

Execute main program instructions Assist Processor with specific tasks

Essential for computer operation Optional, but enhances performance

General computing tasks Specialized computations (e.g.,

graphics, Mathematics operation)

Can operate without a Coprocessor Works alongside a Processor

Ex. Central Processing Unit (CPU) Ex. Graphics Processing Unit (GPU)
• BIOS & BIOS components
• BIOS stand for Basic Input/Output system.
• The system BIOS is the lowest-level software in the
computer; it acts as an interface between the
hardware, especially the chipset, processor and the
operating system.
• The BIOS provides access to the system hardware and
enables the creation of the higher-level operating
system like DOS, Windows, and Linux etc.
• BIOS identifies, configures, tests and connects
computer hardware to the OS immediately after a
computer is turned on. The combination of these
steps is called the boot process.
• When you turn on your computer, the BIOS
does several things. This is its usual sequence:
• Check the CMOS Setup for custom settings
• Load the interrupt handlers and device drivers
• Initialize registers and power management
• Perform the power-on self-test (POST)
• Display system settings
• Determine which devices are bootable
• Initiate the bootstrap sequence
• BIOS components
• 1) BIOS ROM :
– The main hardware component of the system BIOS is the
system BIOS ROM itself.
– This is normally located in an electrically-erasable read-
only memory (EEPROM) chip, which allows it to be
updated through software control. This process is
commonly called flashing BIOS.
– Under normal circumstances, the BIOS ROM is permanent.
• If for some reason the BIOS ROM were to become corrupted
for example, you might find your PC left in a state where it
could not be booted. In this situation. you might have to
physically replace the BIOS ROM. but this is a very rare
happening
• 2) BIOS CMOS Memory:
– CMOS stands for "Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor". This is one
type of technology, used to make semiconductors (integrated circuits) such as
processors, chipset chips, DRAM, etc.
– CMOS has the advantage of requiring very little power compared to some
other semiconductor technologies.
– This is why it was chosen for this use.
– So that the amount of power required from the battery would be
minimal. and the battery would be able to last a long time.
– The BIOS settings must be saved in non-volatile memory so that they are
preserved even when the machine power is off.
– A special type of memory is used to store this information called CMOS
memory. and a very small battery is used to trickle a small charge to it to make
sure that the data it holds is always preserved.
– These memories are very small typically 64 bytes.
– This non-volatile memory is sometimes called NVRAM (Non Volatile RAM).
• The most of motherboard allow to clear the CMOS memory when
require, when this is helps someone set the CMOS setup password and
forgot it.
• Functions of BIOS
• 1) Power-On Self-Test (POST): During the boot process,
the BIOS performs a series of tests on the hardware
components, such as the CPU, memory, and storage
devices, to check if they are functioning properly. If any
issues are detected, the BIOS may display error
messages or emit beep codes to alert the user.
• 2) System Configuration: The BIOS allows users to
configure various system settings, such as the boot
order of devices, date and time, and hardware
parameters. These settings can be accessed and
modified through the BIOS setup utility, which is
typically accessed by pressing a specific key during the
boot process, such as F2 or Del.
• 3 ) Device Initialization: The BIOS initializes all the hardware
components of the computer, including the CPU, memory, storage
devices, and peripheral devices, such as keyboard and mouse. It
provides the necessary instructions for these devices to start
functioning and communicate with the operating system.

• 4) Boot Loader: The BIOS contains a boot loader, which is a small

program that loads the operating system into memory and starts
its execution. The boot loader reads the boot sector of the storage
device, which contains the initial instructions for the operating
system to start loading.

• 5) Firmware Updates: The BIOS can be updated with new

firmware to fix bugs, improve compatibility, and add new features.
Firmware updates are typically provided by the motherboard
manufacturer and can be installed using a utility provided by the
manufacturer.
• The BIOS has 4 main functions:
• POST - Test computer hardware insuring hardware is
properly functioning before starting process of loading
Operating System.
• Bootstrap Loader - Process of locating the operating
system. If capable Operating system located BIOS will
pass the control to it.
• BIOS - Software / Drivers which interfaces between the
operating system and your hardware. When running DOS
or Windows you are using complete BIOS support.
• CMOS Setup - Configuration program. Which allows you
to configure hardware settings including system settings
such as computer passwords, time, and date.
•
 Different types of BIOS

• Traditional BIOS: Refers to the original BIOS

developed by IBM, which used a simple set of
instructions stored in a ROM chip and was
commonly used in older computer systems.

• UEFI (Unified Extensible Firmware Interface)

and EFI (Extensible Firmware Interface):
Refers to modern BIOS types that offer
advanced features, such as larger storage
support, faster boot times, graphical user
interfaces (GUI), and improved security.
• BIOS Startup Screen
• When the system BI0S starts up, you will see its familiar screen
display, normally after the video adapter displays its information.
These are the contents of a typical BIOS start up screen:
– The BIOS Manufacturer and Version Number.
– The BIOS Date: The date of the BIOS can be important in helping you
determine its capabilities.
– Setup Program Key: The key or keys to press to enter the BIOS setup
program. (This is usually {Del}, sometimes {F2}, and sometimes another
key combination.
– System Logo: The logo of the BIOS Company or in some cases the PC
maker or motherboard manufacturer.
• The BIOS Serial Number: This is normally located at the bottom of
the screen. Since BIOSes are highly customized to the particular
motherboard, this serial number can be used in many cases to
determine the specific motherboard, this serial number can be used
in many cases to determine the specific motherboard and BIOS
version you are using.