Chapter 5

Network Layer

Computer
Networking: A
Top Down
Approach
6th edition
Jim Kurose, Keith
Ross
Addison-Wesley
March 2012

Network Layer 4-1

Chapter 5: network layer
chapter goals:
 understand principles behind network
layer services:
 network layer service models
 forwarding versus routing
 how a router works
 routing (path selection)

Network Layer 4-2

Network layer
application
 transport segment transport
network

from sending to data link

physical
network
receiving host
network
data link data link
network physical
physical
data link
 on sending side physical network
data link
network
data link

encapsulates physical physical

segments into network

data link
network
data link
datagrams physical
network
data link
physical

 on receiving side, physical

application

delivers segments to network

data link
physical
network
transport
network

transport layer
network data link data link
data link physical physical
physical
 network layer
protocols in every
host, router
 router examines Network Layer 4-3
Two key network-layer
functions
 forwarding: move analogy:
packets from
router’s input to
 routing: process of
appropriate router planning trip from
output source to dest
 routing: determine
 forwarding: process
route taken by of getting through
packets from source single interchange
to dest.
 routing algorithms

Network Layer 4-4

nterplay between routing and forwarding

routing algorithm routing algorithm determines

end-end-path through network

local forwarding table forwarding table determines

header value output link local forwarding at this router
0100 3
0101 2
0111 2
1001 1

value in arriving
packet’s header
0111 1

3 2

Network Layer 4-5

The Internet network layer
host, router network layer functions:

transport layer: TCP, UDP

routing protocols IP protocol

• path selection • addressing conventions
• RIP, OSPF, BGP • datagram format
network • packet handling conventions
layer forwarding
table
ICMP protocol
• error reporting
• router “signaling”

link layer

physical layer

Network Layer 4-6

IP Protocol
IP Connectionless
IP - Best Effort Delivery
IP - Media Independence
Encapsulating IP
 IP datagram format
IP protocol version
number total datagram
length (bytes)
header length
(bytes)
for
“type” of data fragmentation/
reassembly
max number
remaining hops
(decremented at
each router)

upper layer protocol

to deliver payload to

how much overhead?

 20 bytes of TCP
 20 bytes of IP e.g. timestamp, record
 = 40 bytes + app route taken, specify list
layer overhead of routers to visit.
Network Layer 4-12
IP addressing: introduction
223.1.1.1
 IP address: 32-bit 223.1.2.1
identifier for host,
router interface 223.1.1.2
223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
 interface:
connection between 223.1.3.27
host/router and 223.1.1.3
223.1.2.2
physical link
 router’s typically
have multiple
interfaces 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2

 host typically has

one or two interfaces
(e.g., wired Ethernet,
223.1.1.1 = 11011111 00000001 00000001 00000001
wireless 802.11)
 IP addresses are 223 1 1 1
associated with
each interface Network Layer 4-13
IP addressing: introduction
223.1.1.1
Q: how are 223.1.2.1
interfaces actually
connected? 223.1.1.2
223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9

A: we’ll learn about

that in chapter 5, 223.1.1.3
223.1.3.27

6. 223.1.2.2

A: wired Ethernet interfaces

connected by Ethernet switches
223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2

For now: don’t need to worry

about how one interface is
connected to another (with no
intervening router) A: wireless WiFi interfaces
connected by WiFi base station

Network Layer 4-14

Legacy Classful Addressing
Legacy Classful
Addressing

An IPv4 address
usually has three
parts.
Subnets
223.1.1.0/24
223.1.2.0/24
 IP address: 223.1.1.1
 subnet part - high
order bits 223.1.1.2 223.1.2.1
 host part - low 223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9

order bits 223.1.2.2

 what’s a subnet ? 223.1.1.3 223.1.3.27

 device interfaces subnet

with same subnet
part/network part 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2
of IP address
 can physically
reach each other 223.1.3.0/24
without intervening
router Network consisting of 3 subnets
subnet mask: /24
Network Layer 4-17
Subnets 223.1.1.2

how many? 223.1.1.1 223.1.1.4

How many 223.1.1.3

addresses are
being wasted 223.1.9.2 223.1.7.2

for each
subnet?
223.1.9.1 223.1.7.1
223.1.8.1 223.1.8.2

223.1.2.6 223.1.3.27

223.1.2.1 223.1.2.2 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2

Network Layer 4-18

Reasons for Subnetting
 Subnetting is the process of segmenting
a network into multiple smaller network
spaces called subnetworks or subnets.
 Large networks must be segmented into
smaller subnetworks, creating smaller
groups of devices and services to:
 Control traffic by containing broadcast
traffic within each subnetwork.
 Reduce overall network traffic and improve
network performance.
Reasons for Subnetting
Communication Between Subnets
 A router is necessary for devices on different
networks and subnets to communicate.
 Each router interface must have an IPv4 host
address that belongs to the network or subnet
to that the router interface is connected.
 Devices on a network and subnet use the
router interface attached to their LAN as their
default gateway.

Network Layer 4-20

IP addressing: CIDR
CIDR: Classless InterDomain Routing
 subnet portion of address of arbitrary
length
 address format: a.b.c.d/x, where x is #
bits in subnet portion of address
subnet host
part part
11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000
200.23.16.0/24

Network Layer 4-21

Prefixes
32
bits
Prefix /27 Host
27 5 bits
bits

 A range of IP addresses is given as a

prefix, e.g. 192.0.2.128/27
 In this example:
 How many addresses are available?
 What are the lowest and highest addresses?
Golden Rules for
192.0.2.128/27
 Lowest 192.0.2.128 = Network Address
 Highest 192.0.2.159 = Broadcast
Address
 Usable: 192.0.2.129 to 192.0.2.158
 Number of usable addresses: 32 - 2 =
30
Netmask
 an alternative (old) way of writing the
prefix length
 A ‘1' for a prefix/subnet bit and '0' for a
host bit
 Hence N x 1's followed by (32-N) x 0's

/27
=
11111111111111111111111111100
000
255 . 255 . 255 . 224
Exercises
 Network 10.10.10.0/25
 How many addresses in total?
 How many usable addresses?
 What are the lowest and highest usable
addresses?

 Network 10.10.20.0/22
 How many addresses in total?
 How many usable addresses?
 What the the lowest and highest usable
addresses?
NAT: network address
translation
rest of local network
Internet (e.g., home network)
10.0.0/24 10.0.0.1

10.0.0.4
10.0.0.2
138.76.29.7

10.0.0.3

all datagrams leaving

datagrams with source or
local
destination in this network
network have same
have 10.0.0/24 address for
single source NAT IP
source, destination (as usual)
address:
138.76.29.7,different Network Layer 4-26
source port numbers
NAT: network address
translation
motivation: local network uses just one IP
address as far as outside world is
concerned:
 range of addresses not needed from ISP:
just one IP address for all devices
 can change addresses of devices in local
network without notifying outside world
 can change ISP without changing
addresses of devices in local network
 devices inside local net not explicitly
addressable, visible by outside world (a
security plus)
Network Layer 4-27
IPv4 Unicast, Broadcast, and Multicast

Unicast Transmission
In an IPv4 network, the hosts can communicate one of three different ways:
Unicast, Broadcast, and Multicast

#1 Unicast – the
process of sending a
packet from one host to
an individual host.
IPv4 Unicast, Broadcast, and Multicast

Broadcast Transmission
In an IPv4 network, the hosts can communicate one of three
different ways: Unicast, Broadcast, and Multicast.

#2 Broadcast – the
process of sending a
packet from one host to Directed broadcast
all hosts in the network. • Destination 172.16.4.255
• Hosts within the
NOTE: Routers do 172.16.4.0/24 network
not forward a
limited broadcast!

Directed broadcast
 Destination
172.16.4.255
 Hosts within the
172.16.4.0/24 network
IPv4 Unicast, Broadcast, and Multicast

Multicast Transmission
In an IPv4 network, the hosts can communicate one of three different ways:
Unicast, Broadcast, and Multicast.

#3 Multicast – The process of sending a packet from one host

to a selected group of hosts, possibly in different networks.
 Reduces traffic
 Reserved for addressing multicast groups – 224.0.0.0 to
239.255.255.255.
 Link local – 224.0.0.0 to 224.0.0.255 (Example: routing
information exchanged by routing protocols)
 Globally scoped addresses – 224.0.1.0 to 238.255.255.255
(Example: 224.0.1.1 has been reserved for Network Time
Protocol)
Types of IPv4 Address

Public and Private IPv4 Addresses

Private address blocks are:
 Hosts that do not require access to the Internet can use
private addresses
 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255 (10.0.0.0/8)
 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255 (172.16.0.0/12)
 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255
(192.168.0.0/16)

Shared address space addresses:

 Not globally routable
 Intended only for use in service provider networks
 Address block is 100.64.0.0/10
Types of IPv4 Address

Special Use IPv4 Addresses

 Network and Broadcast addresses – Within each
network, the first and last addresses cannot be
assigned to hosts.
 Loopback addresses – 127.0.0.1 is a special
address that hosts use to direct traffic to
themselves (addresses 127.0.0.0 to
127.255.255.255 are reserved).
 Link-local addresses – 169.254.0.0 to
169.254.255.255 (169.254.0.0/16) addresses can
be automatically assigned to the local host.
 TEST-NET addresses – 192.0.2.0 to 192.0.2.255
(192.0.2.0/24) are set aside for teaching and
learning purposes; used in documentation and
network examples.
 Experimental addresses – 240.0.0.0 to
255.255.255.254 are listed as reserved.
Network Layer in Communication

IPv4 Limitations
 IP address depletion
 More and more IP-enabled devices are
connecting
 Internet routing table expansion
 The Internet routing tables continue to grow which means
Internet core routers require more processing power, memory,
and overhead.
 Lack of true end-to-end model
 IPv4 networks typically use NAT as the solution to address
depletion.
 However, NAT hides the true source address of traffic, which
can cause other issues.
 Lack of end-to-end connectivity
Chapter 4: outline
4.5 routing
4.1 introduction
algorithms
4.2virtual
link state
circuit and datagram networks
 distance vector
4.3 what’s inside a router
 hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol
4.6routing in the Internet
datagram format
 RIP
IPv4 addressing
 OSPF
ICMP
 BGP
IPv6
4.7 broadcast and multicast routing

Network Layer 4-34

ICMP: internet control message
protocol
 used by hosts &
Type Code description
routers to
0 0 echo reply (ping)
communicate 3 0 dest. network unreachable
network-level 3 1 dest host unreachable
information 3 2 dest protocol unreachable
 error reporting: 3 3 dest port unreachable
unreachable host, 3 6 dest network unknown
network, port, 3 7 dest host unknown
protocol 4 0 source quench (congestion
 echo request/reply control - not used)
(used by ping) 8 0 echo request (ping)
 network-layer 9 0 route advertisement
“above” IP: 10 0 router discovery
 ICMP msgs carried in 11 0 TTL expired
12 0 bad IP header
IP datagrams
 ICMP message: type,
code plus first 8 Network Layer 4-35
Traceroute and ICMP
 source sends series  when ICMP
of UDP segments to messages arrives,
dest source records RTTs
 first set has TTL =1
 second set has TTL=2, stopping criteria:
etc.  UDP segment
 unlikely port number
eventually arrives at
 when nth set of destination host
datagrams arrives to  destination returns
nth router: ICMP “port
 router discards
datagrams
unreachable”
 and sends source ICMP message (type 3,
messages (type 11, code 3)
code 0)  source stops
3 probes
 ICMP 3 probes
messages
includes name of
router3&probes
IP address
Network Layer 4-36
IPv6: motivation
 initial motivation: 32-bit address space
soon to be completely allocated.
 additional motivation:
 header format helps speed
processing/forwarding
 header changes to facilitate QoS

IPv6 datagram format:

 fixed-length 40 byte header
 no fragmentation allowed

Network Layer 4-37

Introducing IPv6
 Larger address space
 IPv6 addresses are 128 bits, compared to IPv4’s
32 bits.
• There are enough IPv6 addresses to allocate more than
the entire IPv4 Internet address space to everyone on
the planet.
 Elimination of public-to-private NAT
 End-to-end communication traceability is
possible.
 Elimination of broadcast addresses
 IPv6 now includes unicast, multicast, and
anycast addresses.
 Support for mobility and security
 Helps ensure compliance with mobile IP and
IPsec standards.
 Simplified header for improved router efficiency
 IPv4 Header vs. IPv6
Header
• The IPv4 header has 20 octets containing • The IPv6 header has 40 octets containing
12 basic header fields. 8 fields.
• Three of these fields are identical in nature.
• Other fields serve similar functions as in IPv4.
• The remaining IPv4 fields no longer exist in IPv6.
 IPv6 Address Specifics
 The 128-bit IPv6 address is written
using hexadecimal numbers.
 Specifically, it consists of 8, 16-bit segments
separated with colons between each set of
four hex digits (16 bits).
 The format is x:x:x:x:x:x:x:x, where x
is a 16-bit hexadecimal field therefore each
x is representing four hexadecimal digits.
 An example address is as follows:
• 2035:0001:2BC5:0000:0000:087C:0000:000A

mework: Read about Abbreviating IPv6 Addre

Is IPv4 Obsolete?
 IPv4 is in no danger of disappearing
overnight.
 It will coexist with IPv6 and then gradually
be replaced.
 IPv6 provides many transition options
including:
 Dual stack:
• Both IPv4 and IPv6 are configured and run
simultaneously on the interface.
 IPv6-to-IPv4 (6to4) tunneling and
IPv4-compatible tunneling.
 NAT protocol translation (NAT-PT)
between IPv6 and IPv4.
Transition from IPv4 to
IPv6
 tunneling: IPv6 datagram carried as
payload in IPv4 datagram among IPv4
routers
IPv4 header fields IPv6 header fields
IPv4 payload
IPv4 source, dest addr IPv6 source dest addr
UDP/TCP payload

IPv6 datagram
IPv4 datagram
Network Layer 4-42
 Tunneling
A B IPv4 tunnel E F
connecting IPv6 routers
logical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv6 IPv6

A B C D E F
physical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv4 IPv4 IPv6 IPv6

flow: X src:B src:B flow: X

src: A dest: E src: A
dest: F
dest: E
dest: F
Flow: X Flow: X
Src: A Src: A
data Dest: F Dest: F data

data data

A-to-B: E-to-F:
IPv6 B-to-C: B-to-C: IPv6
IPv6 inside IPv6 inside
IPv4 IPv4 Network Layer 4-43
Chapter 4: outline
4.5 routing
4.1 introduction
algorithms
4.2 virtual
link state
circuit and datagram networks
 distance vector
4.3 what’s inside a router
 hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol
4.6 routing
datagram informat
the Internet
 RIP
IPv4 addressing
 OSPF
ICMP
 BGP
IPv6
4.7 broadcast and multicast routing

Network Layer 4-44

Forwarding and Routing
 Forwarding is receiving packets on an
interface and re-sending them out on
another interface
 Routing is deciding on the best path to
reach any given destination
 These are two different concepts!
 Forwarding is done in hardware
 Routing is a software function
Outline forwarding
operation
 Receive a datagram
 Is it for us (Destination IP = ours)? Accept
 Look up the destination IP address in
forwarding table (FIB) to find the next hop
• if not found, discard the datagram
 Re-send to next hop
RIBs and FIBs
 FIB is the Forwarding Table
 It contains destinations and the interfaces
to get to those destinations
 Used by the router to figure out where to
send the packet
 RIB is the Routing Table
 It contains a list of all the destinations and
the various next hops used to get to those
destinations – and lots of other information
too!
 One destination can have lots of possible
next-hops only the best next-hop goes into
the FIB
Forwarding
 The best way to reach a given prefix is
stored in the Forwarding Table
 Each packet's destination address is
looked up to decide where to send it
next (the next hop)
Destination Prefix Next Hop
10.10.0.0/16 1.2.3.3
10.10.1.0/24 1.2.3.4
10.10.2.0/24 1.2.3.5
Longest Prefix Rule
 If the destination matches multiple
prefixes, the longest prefix wins
 Example: packet destination 10.10.1.1

Destination Prefix Next Hop

10.10.0.0/16 1.2.3.3 MATCH!
Longes
10.10.1.0/24 1.2.3.4 MATCH! t Prefix
10.10.2.0/24 1.2.3.5 no match
Longest Prefix Rule #another
example
Default route
Sometimes referred to as gateway of
last resort
 Destination 0.0.0.0/0 or ::/0
 Matches every IP address
 But only when there is no better match
(longer prefix) for that destination
Routing
 Deciding the best path to any
given destination
 Two types:
 Configured manually: static routing
 Learned automatically: dynamic
routing
Path Determination
 Best path is selected based on a metric
 A metric is the value used to measure the
distance to a given network.
 Best path is the path with the lowest metric.
 Examples
 Routing Information Protocol (RIP) - Hop
count
 Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) - Cost based
on cumulative bandwidth from source to
destination
 Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol
(EIGRP) - Bandwidth, delay, load, reliability
Load Balancing
 When a router has two or more paths to
a destination with equal cost metrics,
then the router forwards the packets
using both paths equally:
 Equal cost load balancing can improve
network performance.
 Equal cost load balancing can be configured
to use both dynamic routing protocols and
static routes.
• Homework: Which Routing protocols
support Equal load balancing
Static Routes
 Static routes are manually configured
 They define an explicit path between two
networking devices.
 Static routes must be manually updated if
the topology changes.
 Their benefits include improved security and
control of resources.
 A default static route is used when the
routing table does not contain a path for a
destination network.
Dynamic Routing
 Dynamic routing is used by routers to
share information about the reachability
and status of remote networks. It
performs network discovery and
maintains routing tables.
Dynamic Routing Protocols
 Routing Protocols are used to facilitate
the exchange of routing information
between routers.
 The purpose of dynamic routing
protocols includes:
 Discovery of remote networks
 Maintaining up-to-date routing information
 Choosing the best path to destination
networks
 Ability to find a new best path if the current
path is no longer available
The Role of Dynamic Routing
Protocols
 Advantages of dynamic routing include:
 Automatically share information about
remote networks
 Determine the best path to each network
and add this information to their routing
tables
 require less administrative overhead
 Disadvantages of dynamic routing
include:
 Part of a router’s resources are dedicated
for protocol operation, including CPU time
and network link bandwidth
 Times when static routing is more
appropriate
Using Static Routing
 Networks typically use a combination of
both static and dynamic routing.
 Static routing has several primary uses:
 Providing ease of routing table maintenance
in smaller networks that are not expected to
grow significantly.
 Routing to and from a stub network.
 Accessing a single default router. This is
used to represent a path to any network
that does not have a match in the routing
table.
Using Static Routing
(cont.)
Dynamic verses Static Routing
Static Routing Scorecard
Dynamic verses Static Routing
Dynamic Routing Scorecard
Types of Routing Protocols
Classifying Routing Protocols
Types of Routing Protocols
Distance Vector Routing Protocols

Distance vector IPv4 IGPs:

 RIPv1 - First generation
legacy protocol
 RIPv2 - Simple
distance vector routing
protocol

For R1, 172.16.3.0/24 is one hop

away (distance). It can be reached
through R2 (vector).
Types of Routing Protocols
Distance Vector or Link-State Routing
Protocols

Distance vector protocols use routers as sign

posts along the path to the final destination.

A link-state routing protocol is like having a complete map of the

network topology. The sign posts along the way from source to
destination are not necessary, because all link-state routers are using
an identical map of the network. A link-state router uses the link-state
information to create a topology map and to select the best path to all
destination networks in the topology.
Types of Routing Protocols
Link-State Routing Protocols

Link-state IPv4 IGPs:

 OSPF - Popular
standards based
routing protocol
 IS-IS - Popular in
provider networks.
Distance Vector Routing Protocol Operation
Distance Vector Technologies

Distance vector routing protocols:

 Share updates between neighbors
 Not aware of the network topology
 Some send periodic updates to broadcast IP
255.255.255.255 even if topology has not changed
 Updates consume bandwidth and network device
CPU resources
Distance Vector Routing Protocol Operation
Distance Vector Algorithm

RIP uses the Bellman-Ford algorithm as its routing algorithm.

Link-State Routing Protocol Operation
Shortest Path First Protocols
Link-State Updates
Link-State Routing Process
Link-State Routing Protocol Operation
Dijkstra’s Algorithm
Why Use Link-State Routing Protocols
Protocols that Use Link-State

There are only two link-state routing protocols:

 Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) most popular

• began in 1987
• two current versions
• OSPFv2 - OSPF for IPv4 networks
• OSPFv3 - OSPF for IPv6 networks

 IS-IS was designed by International Organization for Standardization (ISO )

Types of Routing Protocols
IGP and EGP Routing Protocols

Interior Gateway
Protocols (IGP) -
 Used for routing
within an AS
 Include RIP, EIGRP,
OSPF, and IS-IS
Exterior Gateway
Protocols (EGP) -
 Used for routing
between AS
 Official routing
protocol used by the
Internet
Interior gateway propotals
 most common routing protocols:
 RIP: Routing Information Protocol
 OSPF: Open Shortest Path First

Network Layer 4-74

 RIP ( Routing Information
Protocol)
 included in BSD-UNIX distribution in 1982
 distance vector algorithm
 distance metric: # hops (max = 15 hops), each link has
cost 1
 DVs exchanged with neighbors every 30 sec in response
message (aka advertisement)
 each advertisement: list of up to 25 destination subnets
(in IP addressing sense)

from router A to destination subnets:

u v subnet hops
w u 1
A B
v 2
w 2
x x 3
z C D y 3
y z 2
Network Layer 4-75
RIP: example

z
w x y
A D B

C
routing table in router D
destination subnet next router # hops to dest
w A 2
y B 2
z B 7
x -- 1
…. …. ....
Network Layer 4-76
RIP: example
A-to-D advertisement
dest next hops
w - 1
x - 1
z C 4
…. … ... z
w x y
A D B

C
routing table in router D
destination subnet next router # hops to dest
w A 2
y B 2
A 5
z B 7
x -- 1
…. …. ....
Network Layer 4-77
RIP: link failure, recovery
if no advertisement heard after 180 sec -->
neighbor/link declared dead
 routes via neighbor invalidated
 new advertisements sent to neighbors
 neighbors in turn send out new advertisements
(if tables changed)
 link failure info quickly (?) propagates to entire
net
 poison reverse used to prevent ping-pong
loops (infinite distance = 16 hops)

Network Layer 4-78

RIP table processing
 RIP routing tables managed by
application-level process called route-d
(daemon)
 advertisements sent in UDP packets,
periodically repeated
routed routed

transport transprt
(UDP) (UDP)
network forwarding forwarding network
(IP) table table (IP)
link link
physical physical

Network Layer 4-79

OSPF (Open Shortest Path
First)
 “open”: publicly available
 uses link state algorithm
 LS packet dissemination
 topology map at each node
 route computation using Dijkstra’s algorithm
 OSPF advertisement carries one entry per
neighbor
 advertisements flooded to entire AS
 carried in OSPF messages directly over IP
(rather than TCP or UDP
 IS-IS routing protocol: nearly identical to
OSPF
Network Layer 4-80
OSPF “advanced” features (not
in RIP)
 security: all OSPF messages authenticated
(to prevent malicious intrusion)
 multiple same-cost paths allowed (only
one path in RIP)
 for each link, multiple cost metrics for
different TOS (e.g., satellite link cost set
“low” for best effort ToS; high for real time
ToS)
 integrated uni- and multicast support:
 Multicast OSPF (MOSPF) uses same
topology data base as OSPF
 hierarchical OSPF in large domains.
Network Layer 4-81
Hierarchical
OSPF
boundary router
backbone router

backbone
area
border
routers

area 3

internal
routers
area 1
area 2

Network Layer 4-82

Hierarchical
OSPF
 two-level hierarchy: local area, backbone.
 link-state advertisements only in area
 each nodes has detailed area topology;
only know direction (shortest path) to
nets in other areas.
 area border routers: “summarize”
distances to nets in own area, advertise to
other Area Border routers.
 backbone routers: run OSPF routing
limited to backbone.
 boundary routers: connect to other AS’s.

Network Layer 4-83

Internet inter-AS routing: BGP
 BGP (Border Gateway Protocol): the de
facto inter-domain routing protocol
 “glue that holds the Internet together”
 BGP provides each AS a means to:
 eBGP: obtain subnet reachability
information from neighboring ASs.
 iBGP: propagate reachability information to
all AS-internal routers.
 determine “good” routes to other networks
based on reachability information and
policy.
 allows subnet to advertise its existence
to rest of Internet: “I am here”
Network Layer 4-84