Introduction to research

- STEPS IN RESEARCH
- E P I S T E M O L O G Y, D E S I G N A N D M E T H O D S
 Why to do research?

Reasons for conducting research include:

 There is a gap in the literature;

 There is inconsistency amongst studies;

 There are unresolved issues;

 Societal development prompts a research

question;

 To understand a topic or phenomena better

The Process of Research

Literature Review

Concepts and Theories

Research Questions

Sampling

Data Collection

Data Analysis

Writing Up
 The Process of Research

Literature Review

• What is already known about the topic?

• What concepts and theories have been applied to it?
• What research methods have been applied in
studying it?
• What controversies exist about the topic and about
how it is studied?
• What clashes of evidence (if any) exist?
• Who are the key contributors to research on the
topic?
 The Process of Research

Concepts

 Concepts are the way that we make sense of the

social world.
 Concepts are labels that we give to aspects of the
social world that seem to have significant
common features.

 Choice between deductive and inductive

approaches
 The Process of Research

Research Questions
Types of research question (Denscombe, 2010):

 Predicting an outcome (does y happen under circumstances a

and b?)
 Explaining causes and consequences of a phenomenon (is y
affected by x or is y a consequence of x?)
 Evaluating a phenomenon (does y exhibit the benefits that it
is claimed to have?)
 Describing a phenomenon (what is y like or what forms does y
assume?)
 Developing good practice (how can we improve y?)
 Empowerment (how can we enhance the lives of those we
research?)
 Research question examples…
Quantitative Qualitative
 Descriptive: What is the  Descriptive: What are the
average age of students at experiences of international
GAU? students in North Cyprus?
 Comparative: Is there a  Explanatory: Why do some
significant difference in students prefer online
academic performance learning over traditional
between students who classroom learning?
attend online classes and  Evaluative: What are the
those who attend traditional
strengths and weaknesses
classes?
 Correlational: Is there a
of a new educational
program?
correlation between hours of
 Exploratory: What are the
study and exam scores?
 Causal: Does a new emerging trends in social
media use among young
teaching method improve
student learning outcomes? adults?
 The Process of Research

 Sampling
 E.g. in survey research, or case study research

 Data Collection
 E.g. Structured interview or participant observation

 Data Analysis
 Binary, Regression, SEM, Transcriptions, coding, thematic

analysis, secondary analysis

 Writing up
 Generally include introduction, literature review, research

methods, results, discussion and conclusion

 The Messiness of Research

 The process of research is not always so linear in

reality – it can be much messier.
 Although we can attempt to formulate general
principles for conducting business research, we
have to recognize that things do not always go
entirely to plan
 Flexibility is important as you navigate the
research process.
 Your own research community (i.e. classmates
and/or supervisor, etc) is important to support you
through the process.
 The ‘research onion’

Source: © 2022 Mark NK Saunders; developed from Saunders et al. 2019.

Onthology, Epistemology, Design, and Methods

Ontological assumptions influence

epistemological beliefs about how knowledge
is acquired.
Epistemological beliefs, in turn, shape
methodological choices.
Research design dictates the selection of
appropriate methods.
Methods generate data that is interpreted
through an epistemological lens.
A coherent research design requires a
consistent alignment of all these components.
 Onthology?

 Ontology: researcher's philosophical assumptions

about the nature of reality. It shapes how researchers
perceive the world and, consequently, how they design
and conduct their research.
 Objectivism: Assumes a single, objective reality that
exists independently of human perception. Relies on
quantitative methods to measure and analyze this reality.
Often associated with positivist and post-positivist
paradigms.
 Constructivism: Argues that reality is socially
constructed and subjective, shaped by individual and
collective interpretations. Employs qualitative methods to
understand the meanings and experiences of individuals.
Associated with interpretive and critical paradigms.
 Ontological stand affects research

A researcher's ontological stance significantly

influences their:
 Research questions: What questions are deemed
important and worth investigating?
 Research methods: What methods are appropriate
for studying the chosen phenomenon?
 Data collection techniques: How should data be
collected to capture the relevant aspects of reality?
 Data analysis techniques: What analytical tools are
suitable for interpreting the data?
 Interpretations and conclusions: How should the
findings be interpreted and generalized?
 Epistemology

 Epistomology: The theory of knowledge, exploring

how we know what we know.
 What is knowledge?
 How is knowledge acquired?
 What is the nature of truth?
 Philosophical Paradigms

 Positivism: Assumes a single, objective reality that can be measured and quantified.
Relies on empirical evidence and logical reasoning to uncover universal truths. Uses
statistical analysis to identify patterns and causal relationships.

 Interpretivism: Recognizes that reality is socially constructed and interpreted by

individuals. Employs techniques like interviews, observations, and document analysis
to understand meanings and experiences. Seeks to understand phenomena within
their specific social and cultural contexts.

 Critical Theory: Challenges dominant power structures and seeks to expose social
inequalities. Aims to transform society through critical analysis and action. Often
uses critical discourse analysis, feminist research, and other critical approaches.

 Constructivism: Argues that knowledge is actively constructed by individuals

through their interactions with the world. Recognizes that individuals interpret
experiences differently based on their own perspectives. Employs techniques like
interviews, focus groups, and reflective journaling to explore individual perspectives.

 Pragmatism: Focuses on solving practical problems and finding solutions that work.
Combines quantitative and qualitative methods to address research questions. Adapts
research methods to fit the specific context and research question.
 Appraoch to Theory Development

THEORY AND RESEARCH

 The role of theory in research

Which comes first, theory or research?

Should we examine a problem, and then try to

work out how it is caused, and how it might be
solved (inductive reasoning)?

OR

Should we take a generally accepted theory of

how things work and find evidence for it in the
problem we examine (deductive reasoning)?
 Theories come at two levels

Grand theories: Middle-range theories:

e.g. e.g.
• Structural‑functionalism  Strategic choice
• Symbolic Interactionism  Trait theory
• Critical theory  Contingency theory
• Poststructuralism  Labour Process theory
• Structuration theory

Middle-range theories typically guide business

research.
 Inductive vs Deductive approaches to theory
development

1. Inductive Approach (Bottom-Up)

Data-Driven: Starts with empirical observations and data collection.

Pattern Identification: Researchers identify patterns and trends within the data.
Theory Formation: Based on the observed patterns, a theory is developed to explain the
phenomenon.

Example: A researcher observes that people who exercise regularly tend to be happier. They
then develop a theory that suggests physical activity positively impacts mental health.

2. Deductive Approach (Top-Down)

Theory-Driven: Begins with an existing theory or hypothesis.
Hypothesis Testing: Researchers formulate specific hypotheses based on the theory.
Data Collection: Data is collected to test the hypotheses.
Theory Confirmation or Modification: The data is analyzed to either support or refute the
theory, leading to potential modifications or refinements.

Example: A researcher starts with the theory that stress leads to decreased job performance.
They then conduct a study to test this hypothesis by measuring stress levels and job
performance in a specific workplace.
Deductive and Inductive Theory

• Deductivism:
– Theory  data
– Explicit hypothesis to be confirmed or
rejected
– Quantitative research
• Inductivism:
– Data  theory
– Generalizable inferences from observations
– Qualitative research /grounded theory
The process of deduction
 Abduction

 An increasing popular approach

 Neither inductive or deductive: abductive as a third way

that combines deduction and induction.
 Based on Pragmatist approach

 Starts with a puzzle or surprise and then seeks to explain

it
 Best Explanation:Involves the researcher selecting the
‘best’ explanation from competing explanations or
interpretations of the data (Mantere and Ketokivi 2013)
 Theory Building: The chosen explanation is used to
develop a theory that can be further tested and refined.
 Methodological Choices

Quantitative –mono/multi
Qualitative –mono/multi
Mixed methods research – sequential,
concurrent/embedded
 Quantitative vs Qualitative Research

Quantitative research is a research strategy that

emphasizes quantification in the collection and
analysis of data and that:
• entails a deductive approach to the relationship
between theory and research, in which the
emphasis is on the testing of theories;
Qualitative research is a research strategy that
emphasises words rather than quantification in the
collection and analysis of data and that:

• predominantly emphasizes an inductive approach to

the relationship between theory and research, in
which the emphasis is placed on the generation of
theories;
 Mixed methods research

• It is possible to combine quantitative and

qualitative strategies within a research
project.

•Combining quantitative and qualitative

research provides a more rounded and
complete picture, allows for data triangulation
Research Designs
 Research designs vs methods
 A Research Design is a systematic plan to conduct research. It
provides a framework for the collection and analysis of data.
Choice of research design reflects decisions about priorities
given to the dimensions of the research process.
 Key Components:
 Research Question
 Research Methodology
 Data Collection Methods
 Data Analysis Techniques
• A Research Method is simply a
technique for collecting data. Choice of
research method reflects decisions about
the type of instruments or techniques to
be used.
 Key Considerations in Research
Design

Research Question: Clear, focused, and

answerable.
Methodology: Appropriate methods for data
collection and analysis.
Sample Size and Sampling Technique:
Representative sample to ensure generalizability.
Data Collection Instruments: Reliable and valid
instruments.
Data Analysis Techniques: Suitable statistical or
qualitative analysis techniques.
Ethical Considerations: Adherence to ethical
principles.
 Why is Research Design Important?

• Reliability:
Consistent and
dependable results.
• Validity: Measures
what it intends to
measure.
• Efficiency:
Optimal use of
resources.
• Generalizability:
Applicability of
findings to a wider
population.
 Types of Research Design

Exploratory Research: To explore a topic or phenomenon.

Common Methods: Literature reviews, interviews, focus
groups, observations.

Descriptive Research: To describe characteristics of a

population or phenomenon.
Common Methods: Surveys, case studies, correlational
studies.

Explanatory Research: To explain causal relationships

between variables.
Common Methods: Experiments, quasi-experiments.
 Types of Research Designs

Experimental
Cross-sectional
Longitudional
Case study
Comparative
 Experimental design elements

• Random assignment of subjects to

experimental and control groups,
• Pre-testing of both groups,
• Independent variable manipulated; all other
variables held constant,
• Post-testing of both groups,
• Computation and analysis of group differences
• Manipulation: in order to conduct a true experiment,
it is necessary to manipulate the independent variable
in order to determine whether it does in fact have an
influence on the dependent variable.
• RCT (Randomized Controlled Trial)
 Cross-sectional design

A cross-sectional design entails the collection of data on more

than one case (usually quite a lot more than one) and at a single
point in time in order to collect a body of quantitative or
quantifiable data in connection with two or more variables
(usually many more than two), which are then examined to
detect patterns of association.

Cross-sectional design is

- Mostly associated with survey method

- But can be used with other methods: structured observation,
content analysis, official statistics, and diaries
-Key principles
• More than just one case
• At a single point in time
• Quantitative or quantifiable data
• Patterns of association
 Longitudinal design

• survey of the same sample on more than one occasion

• typically used to map change in business and

management research

• in a panel study (e.g. WERS – Research in focus 2.14-

same managers surveyed in 2011)

• or a cohort study (e.g– all graduates from a business

studies course in the same year)
 Case study design

• Detailed and intensive analysis of one case

• e.g. a specific person, event, organization or
community
• Often involves qualitative research, or mixed
methods
• Case is the focus of interest in its own right -
location/setting just provides a background
• Types of case: critical, unique, extreme,
revelatory, exemplifying (representing)
 Comparative design

• Using the same methods to compare two or more

meaningfully contrasting cases
• Can be qualitative or quantitative
• Often cross-cultural comparisons
– Hofstede’s (1984) study of IBM managers in
different countries
• Includes multiple case studies
• Problem of translating research instruments and
finding comparable samples
 The ‘research onion’

Source: © 2022 Mark NK Saunders; developed from Saunders et al. 2019.