Introduction to

Biology

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 Why a Study of Biology is Important?

Societal
•Medicine
•Public Health
• Worldwide Water Crisis

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 [bahy-ol-uh-jee]

Bio = life
...logy = the study of
Biology is the science that
studies life
 The Scientific Method in
Action

 A systematic way of gaining information

The Scientific Method:
Observation
An observation is a thoughtful
and careful recognition of an
event or a fact.

The careful observation of a

phenomenon leads to a question.
◦ How does this happen?
◦ What causes it to occur?
The Scientific Method:
The Hypothesis
Hypothesizing
◦ question an observation
◦ propose possible solutions to
questions based on what is already
understood about the phenomenon
Hypotheses must:
◦ be logical
◦ account for all current information
◦ make the least possible
assumptions
◦ be testable
 Testing Hypotheses

Hypotheses need to be tested to see if

they are supported or disproved.
◦ Disproved hypotheses are rejected
◦ Hypotheses can be supported but not
proven
Ways to test a hypothesis:
◦ Gathering relevant historical information
 Retrospective Studies
◦ Make additional observations from the
natural world
1- Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 The Scientific Method:
Experimentation

Experiments
◦ rigorous tests to determine if the solutions
are supported
Experiments attempt to recreation an
occurrence
◦ tests whether or not the hypothesis can be
supported or rejected
There are many types of experiments
◦ laboratory, clinical trials, surveys,
1- statistical analyses
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Experimental Design

All
experiments have key elements in
common:
◦ Experiments must be controlled
 this means that all aspects except for one variable
must be kept constant
 usually include any two groups.
 Experimental group: variable is altered, independent
variable
 Control group: variable is not altered, dependent
variable
◦ Experiments use models to recreate
occurrences, but in a controlled setting
 model organisms, ISS, cohorts
Experimental Design
Experiments must:
◦ use large numbers of subjects and/or
must be repeated several times
(replication)
◦ be independently reproducible
Thevalidity of experimental results
must:
◦ be tested statistically
 chi-squared test for statistical significance
◦ be scrutinized by other scientists
 peer reviewed
 Theory

 Ifthe hypothesis is supported by ample

experimental data, it leads to a theory.
 A theory may be defined as a widely accepted,
plausible general statement about a fundamental
concept in science.
◦ The germ theory states that infectious diseases are caused
by microorganisms.
 Many diseases are not caused by
microorganisms, so we must be careful not
to generalize theories too broadly.
◦ Theories continue to be tested
 Exceptions identified
 Modifications made
 A Scientific Law

A scientific law is a uniform and constant fact of

nature that describes what happens in nature.
◦ An example: All living things come from pre-existing living things.
 Scientific laws promote the process of generalization.
◦ Inductive reasoning
◦ Since every bird that has been studied lays eggs, we can
generalize that all birds lay eggs.
 Once a theory becomes established, it can be used to
predict specific facts.
◦ Deductive reasoning
◦ We can predict that a newly discovered bird species will lay eggs.
 Scientific Communication

 Data is shared with the

scientific community
through research articles
published in scientific
journals.
◦ peer review

 Scientists present
preliminary data at
conferences.

 Scientists collaborate
directly by phone and
e-mail.
 1.1 The Science of Life
Biology unifies much of natural life

Biology attempts to define life

Biology Living reveals a hierarchical

organization of living systems

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 Properties of Life
 Living organisms:
are composed of cells (Cellular
Organization)
are complex and ordered (Ordered
Complexity)
respond to their environment (Sensitivity)
can Grow, Develop and Reproduce
obtain and use energy (Energy Utilization)
maintain internal balance (Homeostasis)
allow for Evolutionary Adaptation

The definitions of life are adapting with the field

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- where do viruses fit in?
 Levels of Organization
1. Cellular Level
 Atoms molecules organelles cells
2. Organismal Level
Tissues organs organ systems
3.Population Level
Population species biological community
4. Ecosystem Level
Biological community + physical habitat (soil,
water,atmosphere)
5. The Biosphere
The entire planet thought of as an ecosystem

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 Levels of Organization
Cellular Organization

cells
 organelles
 molecules
 atoms

The cell is the

basic unit of life.

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6
 Levels of Organization
Organismal Level

organism
 organ systems
 organs
 tissues

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8
 Levels of Organization
Population Level

ecosystem
 community
 species
 population

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 The Nature of Science
 The experiment:
 tests the hypothesis
 must be carefully designed to test only
one variable at a time
 consists of a test experiment and a
control experiment

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 The Nature of Science
 If the hypothesis is valid, the scientist can
predict the result of the experiment

 Conducting the experiment to determine

if it yields the predicted result is one way to
test the validity of the experiment

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 Think Like a Scientist

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 The Nature of Science
 Scientists may use:
 Reductionism - to break a complex
process down to its simpler parts
 Models – to simulate phenomena
that are difficult to study directly

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 Test the early hypothesis of
Spontaneous Generation

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Fig. 1.4
 The Nature of Science
A scientific theory:
 is a body of interconnected
concepts
 is supported by much experimental
evidence and scientific reasoning
 expresses ideas of which we are
most certain

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 1.3 An Example of Scientific
Inquiry: Darwin and Evolution
 Charles Darwin served as naturalist on
mapping expedition around coastal South
America.

 Used many observations to develop his

ideas
 Proposed that evolution occurs by
natural selection

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 Charles Darwin
 Evolution: Modification of a species over
generations
 “descent with modification”

 Natural Selection: Individuals with

superior physical or behavioral
characteristics are more likely to survive
and reproduce than those without such
characteristics

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 Darwin’s Evidence
 Similarity of related species
 Darwin noticed variations in related
species living in different locations

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 Unnatural Selection

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 Darwin’s Evidence
Thomas Malthus:
Population growth vs. availability of resources

-population growth
 is geometric

-increase in food
supply is arithmetic

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 Darwin’s Evidence
Population growth vs. availability of resources

 Darwin realized that not all members of a

population survive and reproduce
 Deduced that the organisms best adapted to
obtaining resources would survive to reproduce
 Darwin based these ideas on the writings of
Thomas Malthus

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Post-Darwin Evolution Evidence
Fossil record
 Intermediate Organisms

Mechanisms of heredity
- Early criticism of Darwin’s ideas were
resolved by Mendel’s theories for genetic
inheritance

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Post-Darwin Evolution Evidence
Comparative anatomy
- Homologous structures have same
evolutionary origin, but different structure and
function.

- Analogous structures have similar structure

and function, but different evolutionary origin.

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 Homologous Structures

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Post-Darwin Evolution Evidence
Molecular Evidence

- Our increased
understanding of DNA
and protein structures
has led to the
development of more
accurate phylogenetic
trees.

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 1.4 Unifying Themes in Biology
Cell theory
 The cell theory describes the organization of
living systems
 All living organisms are made of cells, and all
living cells come from preexisting cells

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 1.4 Unifying Themes in Biology
Molecular basis of inheritance
 The molecular basis of inheritance explains the
continuity of life
 DNA encodes genes which control living
organisms and are passed from one generation to
the next
 The DNA code is similar for all organisms
(The Central Dogma)

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 Unifying Themes in Biology
Structure and Function
 The proper function of a molecule is
dependent on its structure
 The structure of a molecule can often tell us
about its function
 Four major classes of Biomolecules
1. Nucleic Acids
2. Amino Acids
3. Lipids
4. Carbohydrates

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 Unifying Themes in Biology
Evolutionary Change
 The diversity of life arises by evolutionary
change leading to the present biodiversity we see
 Biology attempts to classify life’s great diversity
based on these unifying themes
 Currently all living things are classified into 3
Domains subdivided into Kingdoms (more on
taxonomy to come)
 This process is always changing

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 Unifying Themes in Biology
Evolutionary Conservation
 Evolutionary conservation explains the unity of
living systems
 The underlying unity of biochemistry and
genetics argues that all life has evolved from the
same origin event
 Critical characteristics of early organisms are
conserved and passed on to future generations

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 Unifying Themes in Biology
Cells are information-processing systems
 Every cell in an organism carries the same
genetic information
 The control of gene expression allows cells to
differentiate into different cell and tissue types
 Cells also process information received from
the environment and respond to maintain
homeostasis

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 Unifying Themes in Biology
Emergent properties
 New properties are present at one level of
organization that are not seen in the previous
level
 The whole is greater than the sum of its parts

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Thank You