Techniques of knowledge representation

There are mainly four ways of knowledge representation which are

given as follows:
1.Logical Representation
2.Semantic Network Representation
3.Frame Representation
4.Production Rules
1. Logical Representation

• It is a language with some concrete rules which deals with

propositions and has no ambiguity in representation.

• It means drawing a conclusion based on various conditions.

• This representation lays down some important

communication rules.

• It consists of precisely defined syntax and semantics which

supports the sound inference.

• Each sentence can be translated into logics using syntax and

semantics.
Syntax:
• Syntaxes are the rules which decide how we can construct legal
sentences in the logic.
• It determines which symbol we can use in knowledge
representation.
• How to write those symbols.
Semantics:
• Semantics are the rules by which we can interpret the sentence in
the logic.
• Semantic also involves assigning a meaning to each sentence.

Logical representation can be categorized into mainly two logics:

1.Propositional Logics

2.Predicate logics
2. Semantic Network Representation

• Semantic networks are alternative of predicate logic

• Representing our knowledge in the form of graphical networks.

• This network consists of nodes representing objects and arcs which

describe the relationship between those objects.

• Semantic networks can categorize the object in different forms and

can also link those objects.

• Semantic networks are easy to understand and can be easily

extended.
• This representation consist of mainly two types of
relations:
1.IS-A relation (Inheritance)
2.Kind-of-relation
Example: Following are some statements which we need to represent
in the form of nodes and arcs.
Statements: In the diagram, we have represented
1.Jerry is a cat. the different type of knowledge in the
2.Jerry is a mammal form of nodes and arcs. Each object is
3.Jerry is owned by Priya. connected with another object by
4.Jerry is White colored. some relation.
5.All Mammals are animal.
3. Frame Representation
• A frame is a record like structure which consists of a collection of
attributes and its values to describe an entity in the world.
• Frames are the AI data structure which divides knowledge into
substructures by representing stereotypes situations.
• It consists of a collection of slots and slot values.
• These slots may be of any type and sizes. Slots have names and
values which are called facets.
Example: 1
Let's take an example of a frame for a
book
Slots Filters

Title Artificial Intelligence

Genre Computer Science

Author Peter Norvig

Edition Third Edition

Year 1996

Page 1152
Example 2:

Let's suppose we are taking an entity, Peter. Peter is a doctor as a

profession, and his age is 25, he is not married and his weight is 78. So

following is the frame representation for this:

Slots Filter

Name Peter

Profession Doctor

Age 25

Marital status Single

Weight 78
4. Production Rules

 Production rules system consist of (condition, action) pairs which

mean, "If condition then action".

Example:
•IF (at bus stop AND bus arrives) THEN action (get into the
bus)
•IF (on the bus AND paid AND empty seat) THEN action (sit
down).
•IF (on bus AND unpaid) THEN action (pay charges).
•IF (bus arrives at destination) THEN action (get down from
the bus).
 Propositional logic in Artificial intelligence

 Propositional logic (PL) is the simplest form of logic where all the
statements are made by propositions.
 A proposition is a declarative statement which is either true or
false.
 It is a technique of knowledge representation in logical and
mathematical form.
Example:

a) It is Sunday.
b) The Sun rises from West (False proposition)
c) 3+3= 7(False proposition)
d) 5 is a prime number.
 Following are some basic facts about propositional
logic:
 Propositional logic is also called Boolean logic as it works on 0 and
1.
 In propositional logic, we use symbolic variables to represent the
logic, and we can use any symbol for a representing a proposition,
such A, B, C, P, Q, R, etc.
 Propositions can be either true or false, but it cannot be both.
 Propositional logic consists of an object, relations or function,
and logical connectives.
 These connectives are also called logical operators.
 The propositions and connectives are the basic elements of the
propositional logic.
 Connectives can be said as a logical operator which connects two
sentences.
 A proposition formula which is always true is called tautology, and
it is also called a valid sentence.
 A proposition formula which is always false is called Contradiction.
 Statements which are questions, commands, or opinions are not
propositions such as "Where is Rohini", "How are you", "What is
your name", are not propositions.
Syntax of propositional logic:
• The syntax of propositional logic defines the allowable sentences
for the knowledge representation.
• There are two types of Propositions:
1.Atomic Propositions
2.Compound propositions

Atomic Proposition: Atomic propositions are the simple

propositions. It consists of a single proposition symbol. These are the
sentences which must be either true or false.

Example:

a) 2+2 is 4, it is an atomic proposition as it is a true fact.

b) "The Sun is cold" is also a proposition as it is a false fact.

Compound proposition: Compound propositions are constructed

by combining simpler or atomic propositions, using parenthesis and

logical connectives.

Example:

a) "It is raining today, and street is wet."

b) "Ankit is a doctor, and his clinic is in Mumbai."

Logical Connectives:

 Logical connectives are used to connect two simpler propositions

or representing a sentence logically.
 We can create compound propositions with the help of logical
connectives.
 There are mainly five connectives, which are given as follows:
1.Negation: A sentence such as ¬ P is called negation of P. A literal can
be either Positive literal or negative literal.
2.Conjunction: A sentence which has ∧ connective such as, P ∧ Q is
called a conjunction.
Example: Rohan is intelligent and hardworking. It can be written as,
P= Rohan is intelligent,
Q= Rohan is hardworking. → P∧ Q.
3.Disjunction: A sentence which has ∨ connective, such as P ∨ Q. is
called disjunction, where P and Q are the propositions.
Example: "Ritika is a doctor or Engineer",
Here P= Ritika is Doctor. Q= Ritika is Doctor, so we can write it as P ∨ Q.
4.Implication: A sentence such as P → Q, is called an implication.
Implications are also known as if-then rules. It can be represented as
If it is raining, then the street is wet.
Let P= It is raining, and Q= Street is wet, so it is represented as P →
Q
5.Biconditional: A sentence such as P⇔ Q is a Biconditional
sentence, example If I am breathing, then I am alive
P= I am breathing, Q= I am alive, it can be represented as P ⇔ Q.
Truth Table:
Truth table with three propositions:
Precedence of connectives:

 Just like arithmetic operators, there is a precedence order for

propositional connectors or logical operators.
 This order should be followed while evaluating a propositional
problem. Following is the list of the precedence order for
operators:
Precedence Operators

First Precedence Parenthesis

Second Precedence Negation

Third Precedence Conjunction(AND)

Fourth Precedence Disjunction(OR)

Fifth Precedence Implication

Six Precedence Biconditional

Logical equivalence:

Logical equivalence is one of the features of propositional logic. Two

propositions are said to be logically equivalent if and only if the
columns in the truth table are identical to each other.

In below truth table we can see that column for ¬A∨ B and A→B, are
identical
Limitations of Propositional logic:

 We cannot represent relations like ALL, some, or none with

propositional logic. Example:

• All the humans are intelligent.

• Some apples are sweet.

 Propositional logic has limited expressive power.

 In propositional logic, we cannot describe statements in terms

of their properties or logical relationships.