INTRODUCTION TO PHY112

Practical physics is very essential in the

study of physics. It makes physics real and
valid to the enquiring mind through the
results of experimental works in physics.
In practical physics classes, physics theories
and principles are tested, students are
taught how to set up apparatus, obtain data,
analyze data and draw conclusions based on
results obtained from the data analysis.
 OBJECTIVES OF PRACTICAL PHYSICS
(i) Training students in scientific methods of observation
and recording of data.
(ii) Training students on how to obtain experimental data,
handle, and assess their values and develop confidence in
one’s ability to compute reliable answers or determine valid
relations.
(iii) Train students to acquire techniques in handling and
adjustment of equipment.
(iv) Teach students on how to use specialize equipment,
become familiar with the limitations of equipment and
errors in measurements.
(v) To train students in the use of graphical representation
 LABORATORY DIRECTIVES
(i) Read the instructions for the experiments
carefully before coming into the laboratory.
(ii) Late coming is not allowed and all absenteeism
will not be tolerated must be
(iii)All breakages or damage to any equipment
must be reported immediately so that replacement
or repairs could be made before the next practical
class.
(iv) A permanent standard science note book is
required for the laboratory report.
 MATERIALS REQUIRED FR PHYSICS
PRATICAL CLASSES
(i) Laboratory Manual
(ii) Work book
(iii) 2A note book for recording values
and rough works
(iv) Ruler, Pencil, eraser, sharpner or
razor blade
(v) Calculator
HOW TO REPORT AN EXPERIMENT
Your report must be clearly written to show
exactly what has been done, the results
obtained and the method of error analysis.
The report must be neat, orderly and should
conform to a definite order.
You should start each report on a fresh
page, but not the graph page of the work
book.
Date: The Date of the report should be
written on the top left hand corner.
Experiment number: Experiment number
should be written on top of the page. For
example: “Experiment One”
Title of experiment: This should be written
on the first line of the page.
Aim: The aim of the experiment should
specify what you intend to achieve. For
example: “To Verify Charles’ Law”, “To
determine acceleration due to gravity”.
Graph: In most experiments, you will be
expected to plot a graph. Each graph
should have a title (for example; Graph of
T2/ S2 against M/kg). The axes should be
properly labeled with appropriate units
attached. Choose your scales so that the
graph occupies at least 3/4 of 2/3 of the
graph page and all points on the graph are
not crowded within a narrow region of the
graph.
Diagram: where necessary, draw a line drawing of
the apparatus. The drawing must be labeled of
letters for easy referencing.

Method or Procedure: Here, you report how you

performed the experiment. At this level, you are
not required to write the method you used to carry
out the experiment.
Theory: The theory of the experiment should be
written where necessary, the equation of the theory
should be linearized to reflect the graph to be
plotted and possible deductions and calculations
that will be made.
 READING OF OBSERVATION
The results of all measurements made during the
experiment should be recorded in a closed composite table.
The readings should be recorded to the correct decimal
places to reflect the degree of accuracy of the instrument
used. The number of decimal places must be consistent
throughout the column. The headings at the top of the
table denote the quantities measured with their units
Where the readings cannot be expressed in tabular form,
such as in specific heat capacity experiment, your readings
must be recorded following a neat order to the correct
decimal places and with appropriate units
After measuring the physical quantities say length L
and period T directly, you may be required to
perform mathematical operation on the measured
quantities. For example, you may be asked to
evaluate the reciprocal of L (L-1), the square of T (T2)
etc. The mathematical operation affecting the
measurement should also affect the units of
measurement. For example, the unit T2 is second of
square (S2), the unit of reciprocal of length L-1 is
centimentres inverse of metre inverse (m-1)
depending on the unit used. Evaluated values should
be written to at least three decimal places. And
when plotting graph, one can approximate to two
decimal places if possible
 Calculations:
where required, you calculate the scope of
your graph and record the intercept, use
your calculated scope and intercepts to
calculate the required physical quantities.
Also you calculate the error in your
determined physical quantity.
 PRECAUTIONS
State the necessary precautions you took
while performing the experiment to ensure
accurate results. Precautions are written in
past tense using the phrases ‘It was
ensure’, ‘Care was taken’….. Avoid all
personal pronouns and the use of
instructions given in the manual as
precaution.
 CONCLUSION
This should reflect the aim of the experiment. It
should also contain a statement of the final result
either in words or numerical value with
appropriate unit of measurement attached and
the number of significant figures to justify the
accuracy of the work. Also, in your conclusion,
when a physical constant is determined, you
should also quote the current and acceptable
difference between your numerical value and the
acceptable one.
 HOW TO PLOT GRAPHS
When you are asked to plot a graph, it is
expected that your graph should cover at
least 2/3 of the graph page unless on
special cases. Scales such as 1 cm, of 2
cm to represent 1, 2, 5, 10 etc. or
multiples of 0.1, 0.2, 0.5 etc should be
used. Odd scales such as 1cm to
represent 3, 7 or 9 units should be
avoided.
To locate a points on the graph page, two
perpendicular lines called X and Y axis
are drawn intercepting at the origin (0,
The Y axis or coordinate is called the vertical of
ordinate while the x – axis or coordinate is called
the horizontal of abscissa. A point in the graph
page is specified by its X and Y coordinates (X1,
Y1). On the Y – axis, measurements above the
origin is positive while those below it are negative.
Similarly, on the X – axis, measurements to the
right of the origin are considered positive and
those to the left of it are considered negative.
When plotting a graph of quantities that does not
involve negative values, we make use of only the
positive side of X and Y axis.
 Graph of T (s)against L(m)
40.00

35.00

30.00
T(S)25.00

20.00

15.00

10.00

5.00

0.00
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00
L(m)
 When plotting a graph, mark each point by a dot and
circle it alternatively with a cross using a sharp pencil.
Drw the line of being fit which one line is passing through
maximum number of points with equal number of points
displayed on both sides.
The slope (also called gradient of tangent) of a graph is
the rate change of the quantity in the vertical axis with the
quantity on the horizontal axis. The intercept of the graph
on any axis is the points where it cuts that axis. The slope of
a graph is obtained by taking two suitable points on the line
which are far apart as possible and such that their
coordinates do not involve fractions of the graph
subdivisions. When the intercept of a graph on any of both
of the axis is required, the graph is expected to start from
the origin (0.0).
After plotting a graph, label the axes,
note the title of the graph on top graph
page and the scale of the graph on the
top right hand corner of the graph
page. No calculation should be made on
the graph page where a graph have
being plotted
 TYPES OF GRAPH
Straight Line Graph
A linear or straight lie graph is obtained when the
quantity on the vertical axis increase with the
variable on the horizontal axis. The graph may or
may not have an intercept on any of the axes. You
are required to find then intercept of the graph, the
line of best fit should be extended to meet the axis
which you use to read intercept. The intercept of a
graph along any axis may be positive or negative.
Y2
Y(cm)

Y1
X2

0.0 Xo X(cm)

Yo
 Y Y2  Y1
slope  
X X 2  X 1
A graph that slopes upwards, has a
positive slope and makes an acute angle
with the positive X-axis.
A straight line graph can slope downwards
as shown in figure 2.2 below. This type of
graph is obtained when the quantity in one
of the axes increases with a decrease in the
quantity in the other axis. Then slope of the
graph is negative and the graph makes
obtuse angel with the positive X- axis is the
intercept along the Y- axis and X0 is the
intercept along the horizontal axis. The
slope of the graph is calculated as shown
below:
Change in Y Y y2  y1
Slope   
Change in X X x2  x1
Yo

Y1 Y(m)

Y2

X1 X2 ·X
O
 Change inY Y y2  y1
slope   
Change in X X x2  x1
 NON – LINEAR OR CURVED GRAPHS

In a non linear or curved, the slope varies point to

point. A curved graph can slope upwards or
downwards. The slope of a curved graph at a point is
the slope of the tangent to the curve at that point. A
typical curved graph is shown in figure 2.3 below. To
get the slope of the curved graph, tangent is drawn
to touch the curve at a point d. The tangent must be
big to provide a large right angle triangle required
for the determination of the slope. The tangent
forms the hypotenuse unite the adjacent sides are
parallel to the axes
 Y
(cm)

X(cm) (b)
Y(cm)

X(cm) (a)
 Linearization of graphs
In most practicals, we plot graphs to enable us know the
relationship between two quantities. The simplest graph is
the straight line graph. Complex equations that will not give
straight line graphs are reduced to a form which will give
straight line.The straight line equation is given as
y mx  c
y mx

where y represents the variable plotted along the vertical

axis, x represents the variable plotted along the horizontal
axis, m is the slope of the straight line and C is the intercept
along then vertical axis.
Straight line graphs passing through the origin are
represented by the equation.
y mx
The equation of a straight line enables us to
transform equations in the quadratic or exponential
forms in such a way that they take the form of the
equation of a straight line
Consider the equation
H L
T 2
g
where H, and g are physical quantities to be
determined, T is them period of pendulum of length,
L. If a graph of T is plotted against L, a parabolic
graph is obtained and the value if g and H cannot be
obtained from them curve.
The equation can be transformed into straight line graph by squaring
both sides to obtain.

2 4 2
H 4 2
L
T  
g g
Which can be written as

2 4 2
L 4 2
H
T  
g g
This equation is similar to the equation of a straight line.
y mx  c
So if a graph of T2 is plotted against L, a straight line graph sloping from
left to right will be obtained with a negative slope equal to

 4 2
and intercept equal to
g
 Error in slopes and Intercepts
To calculate the standard error in the
slope of a graph, first draw the line of
best fit. This is the line passing through
maximum number of points with equal
number of points displaced on both sides.
Locate the two points that are very far
apart or the point that is farthest from
the line of best fit. Next, measure the
vertical scatter w, which is the vertical
distance between the two farthest points
or the vertical distance from the farthest
point on the line of best fit
Measure the horizontal range R (the
distance between the largest and the
smallest values plotted along the x-axis). If
the n is the total number of points plotted,
and x is the mean of the values plotted
along the X-axis, the standard error in the
slope is 4w
Ss 
nR
The standard error in the intercept along the y-axis is
given by the expression
The following readings were obtained by a student in the laboratory
T2h(s2m) 1.33 1.24 1.02 0.84 0.68 0.60

h2(m2) 0.24 0.20 0.16 0.12 0.09 0.06

Plot a graph of T2h against h2. Find the slope of the graph, read and record the intercept
along the vertical axis. Calculate the standard error in the slope and intercept.
 Graph of T2h against h2
1.60

1.40

1.20 W
T 2 h( s 2 m)
1.00

0.80

0.60

0.40

0.20

0.00
0.00
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
2 2
h (m )
 y 1.26  0.60 0.66
slope    3.77
x 0.235  0.06 0.175
Error in slope 4w
ss 
nR
N = 6,
R = 0.24 - 0.06 = 0.18
W = 1.26 – 1.14 = 0.12

4 w 4 x0.12 0.48
ss    0.44
nR 6 x0.18 1.08

1
Intercept = 0.36   w 2 2 2
Error in intercept , s y   n   ss x  
 

0.24  0.20  0.16  0.12  0.09  0.06

x 0.145
6
 12
  0.12  2 2
s y     0.145 x0.44  
  6  

s y  0.0004  0.0041 0.0045 0.07

12 12

Slope = 3.77  0.44

Intercept = 0.36  0.07