Chapter Seven

Writing the Research Report

 Introduction

The intrinsic value of a study can also be easily

destroyed by poor report preparation.

A well-presented study can impress the reader

more than another study with greater scientific

quality but a weaker presentation.
Hard work and excellence alone do not
guarantee that research will have an impact.
 So, good research alone is insufficient .
 Introduction
Hence, researchers must communicate clearly and

fully their research results through a report.

A research report is a written means of

communication the research result.
Writing is a process- it takes time, and effort and

improves with practice.

When writing the research report it would be
important to consider: What is the purpose of the
report?
 Who will read the report?
 How will the report be used? etc.
 The Writing Process
Generally the writing process has three major
steps:

i) Pre-writing: prepare to write by arranging

notes on the literature, making lists of ideas,
outlining, completing bibliographic citations,
footnotes, and organizing comments on data
analysis.

ii) Composing: get your ideas onto paper as a

first draft by free-writing –draft report.
 The Writing Process
iii) Rewriting: evaluate and polish the report by
improving coherence, proofreading for mechanical
errors, checking citations, and reviewing voices and
tenses.
This step actually involves two related procedures:

 Revising is the process of inserting new ideas,

adding supportive evidences, deleting or changing
old ideas, etc.
 Editing is the process of cleaning up -spelling,
grammar usage, verb tense, sentence length and
paragraph organization.
Types Of Research Reports:- Short and Long Reports
Short Reports: are more informal and are
appropriate for studies in which the problem is
well defined, of limited scope, and for which
methodologies are simple and
straightforward.
 Example: interim reports.

At the beginning, there should be a brief

statement on the problem. Next comes the

conclusions and recommendations, followed
by findings that support the conclusions.
 Types of Research Reports
Long Reports: Long reports are long and follow well-
defined formats.

They are of two types, the technical or base

report and the popular report.

Which of these to use depends chiefly on the

audience and the researcher’s objectives.

i) The technical report

This report should include full documentation

and detail - it is the major source

document.
 Types of Research Reports
It contains information on the:

sources of the data,

sampling design,

data gathering instruments,

data analysis methods, as well as

a full presentation and analysis of the data.

Conclusions and recommendation should be clearly

related to specific findings.

 Types of Research Reports
ii) The popular report

The popular report is designed for the non-

technical audience with no research

background and may be interested only in
results rather than on methodology.
 Decision makers need help in making decisions –
e.g. policy briefs.
Popular report should encourage rapid reading, quick

comprehension of major findings and prompt

understanding of the implication and conclusions.
 Types of Research Reports
Report format for long reports
Two arrangements are typically used – the

logical format and the psychological format.

The logical format
the introductory information covering the
purpose of the study, the methodology and
limitations is followed by the findings.
The findings are analyzed and then followed by

the conclusions and recommendations.

 Types of Research Reports
The psychological format: The conclusions and
recommendations are presented immediately after
the introduction with the findings coming later.
Readers are quickly exposed to the most critical

information i.e. conclusions and

recommendations.
If they wish to go further they may read on into the

findings, which support the conclusion.

Other report formats -the chronological report,

which is based on time sequence or occurrence.

 Components of a technical report
While some may be dropped, other may be added and

their order may vary from one situation to another, a

research report contains several components or
elements.
In general, there are three parts: the prefatory

pages, the body of the report and the appended

sections.
A) Prefatory pages – this section includes the title page,
tables of contents, table of charts and illustrations,
synopsis (summary, abstracts), acknowledgement (if
any), Acronyms etc.
 Components of a technical report
The Title page:- the title page should include
four items: the title of the report, the date, for
whom prepared and by whom the report was
prepared.
A satisfactory title should be brief, but should

at least include:
The variables included in the study, the type of

relationship between the variables, and the

population to which the results may be applied.
 Components of a technical report
The table of contents: – any report of several
sections should have a table of content.

Abstract – this is a short summary.

It goes first in the report, but should be

written last.
It helps the reader determine whether the full

report contains important information.

It is essential that your abstract includes all the

keywords of your research.

 Components of a technical report
An abstract should briefly:

Re-establish the topic of the research.

Give the research problem and/or main

objective of the research.
Indicate the methodology used.

Present the main findings and conclusions

It must be short, because it should give only a

summary of your research.

 Components of a technical report
Common Problems in preparing the Abstract

Too long and too much detail: Abstracts that are

too long often have unnecessary details.

The abstract is not the place for detailed

explanations of methodology or the context of

your research problem.
Too short: Shorter is not necessarily better.

You should review your abstract and see where

you could usefully give more explanation.

 Components of a technical report
B) The body of the report – contains the introduction,
findings, summary and conclusions and recommendations.

1) Introduction – will mostly contain the same material as

the introduction to your proposal

It introduces the research by

giving the background,

presenting the research problem,

indicating the objectives,

the rationale or significance and the scope and

limitations.
 Components of a technical report
Introducing the rest of the report

The last paragraph of the introduction should

explain the organization of the rest of the

report
Example: “Section two reviews the relevant

literature. In Section 3, we describe the data we

have collected. In Section four, we test our
hypothesis using this data. Section five
concludes and makes recommendations for
future research.”
 Components of a technical report
Common problems in writing the introduction

1.Too much detail, and hence too long: detailed

descriptions of method, study site and results
should come in later sections.

2.Repetition of words, phrases or ideas. A high

level of repetition makes your work look careless.

3.Unclear problem definition: Without a clear

definition of your research problem, your reader is
left with no clear idea of what you were studying.

4.Poor organization
 Literature Review
The report also includes a literature review.
Literature means the works you consulted in order

to understand and investigate your research

problem.
It should justify the following ideas:

 Other people are interested in the general topic

 Other studies left the problem unsolved which

leaves a gap in the literature

 Your study fills the gap at least a little bit
 Literature Review
Common Problems:

1.Trying to read everything: if you try to be

comprehensive you will never be able to finish
the reading!

The literature review should not provide a

summary of all the published work that

relates to your research, but a survey of the
most relevant and significant work.
 Literature Review
2. Reading but not writing: Writing takes much
more effort than reading- don't put writing off until
you've "finished" reading.

3. Not keeping bibliographic information: When

preparing your reference you might notice that you
have forgotten to keep the information you need.
 To avoid this nightmare always put references

into your writing. Answers at least two main

questions:
 How was the data collected or generated?
 The methods
 How was it analyzed?
The data collection step covers at least four items:

 the target population that is being studied and the

sampling methods used.

 the research design used and the rationale for

using it including the sample size,

 the materials and instruments used often with a

copy of these materials in the appendix,

 the specific data collection method (survey,
observation or experiment)
 The methods
Your methodology should make clear the reasons

why you chose a particular method or procedure.

Common Problems

1.unnecessary explanation of basic

procedures

2.problem blindness: Do not ignore significant

problems or pretend they did not occur.
 Often, recording how you overcome obstacles
can form an interesting part of the
methodology.
 Findings and Discussions
It is an organized presentation of results and is
generally the longest section of the report.
The Results Section includes:

statement of results: the results are presented

in a format that is accessible to the reader (e.g.

in graphs, tables, diagrams or written text).
explanatory text: all graphs, tables, diagrams

and figures should be accompanied by text that

guides the reader's attention to significant
results.
 Findings and Discussions
The Discussion Section:

The discussion section provides explanation of the

results and includes:

Explanation of results: comments on whether or not the

results were expected and presents explanations for the

results, particularly for those that are unexpected or
unsatisfactory.
References to previous research: comparison of the

results with those reported in the literature, or use of the

literature to support a claim or a hypothesis.
Deduction: a claim for how the results can be applied

more generally.
 Summary and Conclusion
The summary section presents:

• What was learned

• The shortcomings of what was done

• The benefits, advantages, applications, etc. of

the research (evaluation).
The conclusions should follow logically from the

discussion of the findings.

 Summary and Conclusion
Common Problems

1.Too long. The conclusion section should be short not more

than 2.5% of an entire piece.

2.Too much detail. Conclusions that are too long often have
unnecessary detail.

3.Failure to reveal difficulties encountered: Negative

aspects of your research should not be ignored.

Problems, drawbacks can be included in your

conclusion section as a way of qualifying your

conclusions (i.e. pointing out the negative
aspects.
 Recommendations
– It involves suggested future actions.
It makes easy reading if the recommendations

are again placed in roughly the same sequence

as the conclusions.
The recommendations could be for further study,

to test, deepen or broaden understanding in the

subject area or for managerial actions.
should take into consideration the local
conditions, constraints, feasibility and usefulness
of the proposed solutions.
Bibliography Vs. Reference:
Bibliography :-The last part of the proposal
provides the list of references in the form of
bibliography which includes books of
research, or conceptual framework, hand-
books encyclopaedia, journals and
unpublished and published thesis on the
related area of the study.

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 The appended section
– this includes appendix and bibliography.

Appendix – complex tables, statistical tests,

supporting documents, copies of forms used,

detailed description of the methodology,
instructions to field workers, and any other
evidence that may be important.
The annexes should contain any additional
information needed to enable professionals to
follow your research procedures and data
analysis.
 The appended section
Examples of information that can be presented in

annexes are:

tables referred to in the text but not

included in order to keep the report short;

lists of study sites, -districts, villages, etc.

that participated in the study;

questionnaires or check lists used for

data collection.
 Presentation Consideration
Reports should be physically inviting, easy to read

and match the comprehension abilities of the

designated audiences (reader).
 Style of writing: Remember that your reader:

 Is short of time

 Has many other urgent matters demanding his or her

interest and attention

 Is probably not knowledgeable concerning ‘research

jargon’
It is always good to use words that convey thoughts

accurately, clearly and efficiently.

 Presentation Consideration
Therefore the rules are:

 Simplify- Keep to the essentials.

 Justify- Make no statement that is not based on

facts and data.

 Quantify when you have the data to do so - Avoid

‘large’, ‘small’; instead, say ‘50%’, ‘one in three’.

 Use short sentences.

 Be consistent in the use of tenses (past or

present tense).
 Presentation Consideration
Layout of the report: A good physical layout is
important since it will:
 make a good initial impression,

 encourage the readers, and

 give them an idea of how the material has been

organized so the reader can make a quick

determination of what he will read first.
Poor reproduction, dirty typewriter type, incorrect

spelling and typographic errors, overcrowding of text,

inadequate labeling of charts and tables, etc. reduce
the credibility of a report.
 Presentation Consideration
So, make sure that there is:

An attractive layout for the title page and a clear

table of contents.
Consistency in margins, spacing, headings and

subheadings,
Numbering of figures and tables, provision of clear

titles for tables, and clear headings for columns and

rows, etc.
Accuracy and consistency in quotations and
references.
 Presentation Consideration
Revising and finalizing the text: the following
questions should be kept in mind when revising:

Have all important findings been included?

Do the conclusions follow logically from the findings?

If some of the findings contradict each other, has this

been discussed and explained? Have weaknesses in
the methodology, if any, been revealed?
Are there any overlaps in the draft that have to be

removed? And is it possible to condense the content?

 Presentation Consideration
Do data in the text agree with data in the tables? Are

all tables consistent (with the same number of

informants per variable), are they numbered in
sequence, and do they have clear titles and headings?
Is the sequence of paragraphs and subsections logical

and coherent? Is there a smooth connection between

successive paragraphs and sections? Is the phrasing
of findings and conclusions precise and clear?
Perform a spell check and grammar check.
 Briefings (presentation)
Good presentation improves both the research and

the reputation of the researcher.

A successful briefing typically requires a
condensation of a lengthy and complex body of
information.
 About 20 minutes presentation is usually required.

An outline of what one is going to say includes

 Opening

 Findings and conclusions

 Recommendations
 Briefings (presentation)
The most important thing to keep in mind:

 The time will usually pass a lot more quickly than

you think
 Keep focused on the main ideas: The motivation,

the problem, and the main results

You do not have to mention all of the difficulties and

shortcomings; people can ask during the

presentation
You do not need to mention response rates or sample size

misspecifications unless these are very important; people

 Briefings (presentation)
Organizing slides:

A slide should contain a handful (25) of key

points; it should not fill the page

Slides should not contain your entire
presentation, just the key things to remember
Graphics can be useful if they tell the story
 Please develop scientific literacy

Scientific literacy is the capacity to

understand scientific knowledge; apply
scientific concepts, principles, and theories; use
scientific processes to solve problems and make
decisions; and interact in a way that reflects
core scientific values.

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 
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