Professional

Conduct and
ethics
Chapter 1
standards
 Chapter 1
Ethics and values
An Overview on the History of Ethics

The English word "ethics" is derived from an Ancient Greek word, ethikos, which means "relating to one's
character". The Ancient Greek adjective êthikos is itself derived from another Greek word, the noun êthos
meaning "character, disposition.

It comes from the Latin word "ethos" means customary, behavior, moral. The two words Latin ethicus and
Greek ethikos have the same meaning which is customary.

Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that involves systematizing, defending, and
recommending concepts of right and wrong wr conduct. The field of ethics, along with aesthetics concern
matters of value, and thus comprise the branch of philosophy called axiology (study of value).
Ethics seeks to resolve questions of human morality by defining concepts such as good and evil,
right and wrong, virtue and vice, justice and crime. As a field of intellectual enquiry, moral
philosophy also is related to the fields of moral psychology, descriptive ethics, and value theory.

Three major areas of study within ethics recognized today are:

1. Meta-ethics, concerning the theoretical meaning and reference of moral propositions, and
how their truth values (if any) can be determined

2. Normative ethics, concerning the practical means of determining a moral course of action

3. Applied ethics, concerning what a person is obligated (or permitted) to do in a specific

situation or a particular domain of action.

There are five significant periods of history that are worth to discuss with our subject "Ethics".
1. The Classical Period
2. The Middle Ages
3. The Early Modern Period
4. The Nineteenth Century
5. The Contemporary Period
The Classical Period

Qualities of Mind during this period according to Jones, et. al

1. A concern with this world and its affair; an interest in nature and in the natural man

2. A thorough rationalism, a respect for evidence, as evidence was understood in those times

3. Most important of all, curiosity

We can summed up these qualities of mind in the term "Humanism"

Philosophers and their Principal Works:

1. Plato The Republic

2. Aristotle Nicomachean Ethics

3. Epicuros Letter of Herodots

Letter of Menaeceus
Principal Doctrines
The Middle Ages

This period is considered to be a study of continuity and discontinuity.

It is termed "Continuity because many of the philosophers were steeped in classical doctrine. A good
example is Thamos Aquinas who put the teaching of Aristotle within the framework of Christianity.

On the other hand, it is termed "Discontinuity" in the sense that religion has come into the picture.
Philosophy such as Ethics and Metaphysics were interwoven with theology.

Philosophers and their Principal Works:

1. Boethius His Consolation of Philosophy

2. Augustine The Happy Life,

The City of Man
The City of God

3. St Bernard of Clairvaux The Steps of Humility

4. Thomas Aquinas Summa Theologica

The Early Modern Period

The philosophy that develops during this period are the following:

1. A shift from the supernatural from natural, temporal and secular

2. An attempt to balance the supernatural and the temporal, as many of the philosophers were not really
weaned from the religion of the past
3. The rise of modern science specially physics
4. The changes brought about by the industrial and social revolutions towards the end of the period

Philosophers and their Principal Works:

1. Nicolo Machiavelli The Prince

2. Thomas Hobbes Leviathan

3. Benedict Spinoza Ethics

4. John Locke Easy Concerning Human

Understanding
5. Joseph Butle Sermons

6. David Hume Picture of Human Nature

7. Emmanuel Kant Lecture on Ethics

The Nineteenth Century

Several tendencies characterized this period:

1. Utilitarianism with the level of "the greatest good to the greatest number."

2. The scientific theory. Although this started in the previous century but many philosophers applies it
with ethical questions during this period like Bentham.

3. The individual versus the state

4. Skepticism as to the place of ethics in metaphysics, that is, if ethics can only be a chapter in
metaphysics or not.

5. Irrationalism: in contrast with the "man is a rational animal" of Aristotle, Aquinas, and their followers
Philosophers and their Principal Works:

1. Jeremy Bentham An Introduction to the Principles

of Morals and Legislation

2. George Wilhem Friedrich Hegel The Philosophy of History

3. Arthur Schopenhauer The World as Will and Idea

4. John Stuart Mill Utilitarianism

5. Soren Kierkegaard Either/Or

6. Friedrich Nietzsche Sounding Out Idols

7. Francis Herbert Bradley Ethical Studies

The Contemporary Period

The philosophers of this period exhibit a diversity of trends in moral beliefs: For and against the scientific
theory, logical positivism, return of belief of man as sinful, existentialism with its own diverse spokesmen

Better elucidation of "what man is" was emphasized.

1. Sigmund Freud Civilization and its Discontents

2. John Dewey Reconstruction in Philosophy

3. G,E. Moore Principia Ethica

4. Paul Tillich Systematic Theology Theology of

Culture

5. Jean Paul Sartre Being and Nothingness

6. Alfred Jules Ayer Language, Truth and Logic

Definition of Ethics

As a field of study, ethics is a branch of philosophy which studies the principles of right or wrong in
human conduct. Right or wrong are qualities assigned to actions, conduct, and behavior. As such,
ethicists inquire into the correctness of such acts as promise keeping, truth telling, integrity, deception,
and compassion. Good and bad, on the other hand, are qualities that characterize ends, goals, and
purposes. As such, ethicists inquire into the reasons for living and working; the goals that should be
pursued in order to lead a successful life; and the purposes that should motivate people in their life
choices (Porter, 1980)

Other definitions:

➤ Science of the morality of man.

➤ Study of human motivation, and ultimately of human rational behavior.

You sent
➤ Morality.

➤ "The principles of conduct governing an individual or profession" (Webster)

➤ It answers the question, "What do I do?"

➤ It is the study of right and wrong in human endeavors.

At a more fundamental level, it is the method by which we categorize our values and pursue them

Ethics outlines theories of right or wrong, morality translate these theories into action. Therefore, morality
is nothing else but it is a doing of ethics.

Ethics is, in essence, doing the right thing, whatever that may be. The "right thing" is based on those
values society holds dear.

Ethical principles are premised on the notion that right is always right and wrong is always wrong.

When officers fail to do what is right, and especially when they do what is clearly and blatantly wrong,
they erode the public trust just a little more and further degrade law enforcement's ability to work within
the community and carry out its mission. Adherence to high ethical standards, then, is as vital to
achieving the overall goal of modern policing as any other tactic, technique or practice.

Rushworth Kidder states that "standard definitions of ethics have typically included such phrases as 'the
science of the ideal human character' or 'the science of moral duty". Richard William Paul and Linda Elder
define ethics as "a set of concepts and principles that guide us in determining what behavior helps harms
sentient creatures". The Cambridge or Dictionary of Philosophy states that the word "ethics" is
"commonly used interchangeably with 'morality' and sometimes it is used more is narrowly to mean the
moral principles of a particular tradition, group or individual." Paul and Elder state that most people
confuse ethics with behaving in accordance with social conventions, religious beliefs and the law and
don't treat ethics as a stand-alone concept.
The word ethics in English refers to several things. It can refer to philosophical ethics or moral philosophy,
a project that attempts to use reason to answer various kinds of ethical questions. As the English
philosopher Bernard Williams writes, attempting to explain moral philosophy: "What makes an inquiry a
philosophical one is reflective generality and a style of argument that claims to be repeat advise
describes the content of this area of inquiry as addressing the very broad question, "how one should live".

Ethics can also refer to a common human ability to think about ethical problems that is not particular to
philosophy. As bioethicist Larry Churchill has written: "Ethics, understood as the capacity to think critically
about moral values and direct our actions in terms of such values, is a generic human capacity." Ethics
can also be used to describe a particular person's own idiosyncratic principles or habits. For example: "Joe
has strange ethics.

“Ethical Foundations

"Ethics is concerned with questions that have no ultimate answers, yet are important to planning one's
life, justifying one's activities and deciding what one ought to do."

Ethical Principles

1. Beneficence
✓ Doing good for others
✓ Helping others
✓ Obligation to act in the interest of others
✓ Beneficence is the professional duty to do or produce good. By "good" is meant the performance of acts
of kindness and charity. "Doing good" is considered virtuous conduct.
General Duty to Beneficence
✓ How significant is the need to be met?
✓ Am I particularly qualified to meet the need?
You sent
✓ How likely is it that my action will achieve success, i.e., a desired outcome?
✓ How much of a risk is it to me? Does the potential benefit outweigh the risk to me?

2. Nonmaleficence
✓ Prevent harm or risk of harm to clients (s)
✓ Includes misguidance, negligence, and impact of stress/burnout

3. Autonomy
✓ Self-rule or self-governance
✓ Free from the control of others
✓ Three conditions necessary
✓ Voluntary participation / no coercion
✓ Competence / can weigh risks and benefits
✓ Full disclosure of relevant information

4. Justice
✓ Fairness in relation to distribution or allocation of time, resources and services
✓Equal Shares
✓Need
✓ Motivation / Effort / Contribution
✓ Free-Market Exchange (supply and demand)
✓Fair Opportunity
5. Fidelity
✓ Keeping promises or commitments
✓ Confidentiality
✓ Conflicts of Interest

Importance of Ethics

➤ Indispensable knowledge.

➤ Without moral perception, man is only an animal.

➤ Without morality, man as rational being is a failure.

Ethics is a requirement for human life

✓ It is our means of deciding a course of action.

✓ Without it, our actions would be random and aimless.
There would be no way to work towards a goal because there would be no way to pick between a limitless
number of goals.
✓ To the degree which a rational ethical standard is taken, we are able to correctly organize our goals and
actions to accomplish our most important values.

Moral integrity is the only true measure of what man ought to be. The most successful professional, is
nothing unless he too is morally upright. Thus, the philosophers speak of Ethics as the "only necessary
knowledge".
Morality is the foundation of every human society. Without civic morality, communities perish; without
personal morality their survival has no value. Every culture admits the importance of morality as a
standard of behavior. When the moral foundations of a nation are threatened, society itself is threatened.

Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that involves systematizing, defending, and
recommending concepts of right and wrong conduct. The term ethics derives from Ancient Greek ethikos,
from ethos, meaning 'habit, custom'. The field of ethics, along with aesthetics concern matters of value,
and thus comprise the branch of philosophy called axiology.

The word philosophy is derived from two Greek words. The first word, philo, "love." means The second,
sophy, means m." Literally, then, philosophy means "love of wisdom" "wisdom." Each individual has an
attitude toward life, children, politics, learning, and previous personal experiences that informs and
shapes their set of beliefs. Although you may not be conscious of it, this set of beliefs, or personal
philosophy, informs how you live, work, and interact with others.

What you believe is directly reflected in both your teaching and learning processes. This chapter explores
the various philosophical views that influence the teaching profession.

To understand the foundations of educational philosophies, it's necessary to first examine philosophy's
four main branches. Understanding educational philosophy will contribute to the understanding of how
these foundations have given rise to what is commonly practiced and believed in the classroom today.
The four main branches of philosophy are metaphysics, epistemology, axiology, and logic.

1. Metaphysics - is the branch of philosophy that considers the physical universe and the nature of
ultimate reality. It asks questions like, What is real? What is the origin of the world? What is beyond the
stars? Your consideration of reality as an external creation or an internal construct can influence your
metaphysical beliefs and perspectives and your teaching. Regardless of your definition of reality, the
exploration and categorization of the physical universe form the foundation of several school subjects.

2. Epistemology - is the branch of philosophy that considers how people come to learn what they know.
Derived from the Greek word episteme, meaning knowledge or understanding, epistemology refers to the
nature and origin of knowledge and truth. Epistemology proposes that there are four main bases of
knowledge divine revelation, experience, logic and reason, and
You sent
intuition. These influence how teaching, learning, and understanding come about in the classroom.

3. Axiology - is the branch of philosophy that considers the study of principles and values. These values
are divided into two main kinds: ethics and aesthetics. Ethics is the questioning of morals and personal
values. Aesthetics is the examination of what is beautiful, enjoyable, or tasteful. In axiology education is
more than just about knowledge but also quality of life.

4. Logic - is the branch of philosophy that seeks to organize reasoning. Students of logic learn how to think
in a structurally sound manner. Logic has two types: deductive and inductive reasoning. Deductive
reasoning involves examining a general case, deducing a general set of rules or principles, and then
applying these rules to specific cases. Inductive reasoning involves taking specific examples and
considering the general principles, rules, or cases that caused them.
Ethics seeks to resolve questions of human morality by defining concepts such as good and evil, right and
wrong, virtue and vice, justice and crime. As a field of intellectual enquiry, moral philosophy also is
related to the fields of moral psychology, descriptive ethics, and value theory.

Three major areas of study within ethics recognized today are:

1. Meta-ethics, concerning the theoretical meaning and reference of moral propositions, and how their
truth values (if any) can be determined

2. Normative ethics, concerning the practical means of determining a moral course of action

3. Applied ethics, concerning what a person is obligated (or permitted) to do in a specific situation or a
particular domain of action.

ETHICS AND LAW

Legal history confirms that customary ethics, rather than laws, have been the prime source of social
conformity. For instance:

1. The Code of Hammurabi (1726-1686 BC) did not in essence introduce new rules but merely reaffirmed
prevailing customs,

2. Plato in his Republic put little emphasis on laws per se and more on the development of a polis- a
perfect city- where laws would be unnecessary. Leaders of the polis were expected to be "men of gold,"
endowed with collective rationality and wisdom.
3. The Common Law that emerged under the Norman rule essentially to control "ruffians"

4. The practice of chivalry, common among the English noble men at the time, needed no legal support,
because it was "law unto itself"

5. The high level of social order among traditional Islamic societies in which relatively very few positive
laws exist

It is necessary to clarify the relationship between the areas of ethics and law.

The purpose of ethics is not to undermine the law or to replace it, but to complement it by deferring to
the spirit of the law Ethics
and to rules of equity. Law

Study of human motivation Concerned with what we do, not what we

feel

Study of human motivation Concerned with the externality of the act.

Requires that man desires that of which is Requires that we perform the required
good and act in accordance with that desire action regardless of our feelings towards
such action.

Addresses all human activities Applies to behaviors that lawmakers choose

to regulate
 Seeks to change people from the Attempt to change people from
inside outward outside inward
Ethical principles are constant, universal Laws are frequently changing
and everlasting

Solidly based on the reasoning process "Logical instrument" of social control that,
essential to appropriate discretion for the most part, are not necessarily
products of wisdom

Prescriptive in nature Basically reactive instrument

Dependent upon knowledge, rationality Dependent for their effectiveness upon

and goodwill legal procedures and complex rules of
evidence

Morality therefore, has a wider implication than law, because law can either be moral or immoral. Thus,
what is legal is not necessarily moral; but what is moral is worth legalizing.

Ethics is not simply a body of do's and don't's in the manner laws are.

Ethics is a personal commitment to uphold what is true and good. Ethics aims to develop "right
disposition and inner spirit" for accepting what is lawful.
 Human Acts Acts of man

Actions performed by man, knowingly and Actions which happen in man

freely

Deliberate or intentional actions, or, Instinctive and are not within the control of
voluntary the will

Actions are the result of conscious Biological and physiological movements in

knowledge and are subject to the control man such as, metabolism, respiration,
of the will. fear, anger, love, and jealousy.

Morality is the quality of human acts by which they are constituted as good, bad, or, indifferent.
You sent
relative ease.

The word "habit-forming" that we use to refer to certain experience shows how easy it is for one to
acquire a habit. It also implies that a habit is not easy to overcome or alter. It requires a strong-willed
person to correct a habit successfully within a limited period of time.
Rights and Duties

Man is born with rights and duties and having rights is an attribute of a person. That is why we have
Commission on Human Rights that addresses violations of such rights.

We insist on our rights but ignore our duties. Duties however are more fundamental than rights.

The duty to do good and to avoid evil is above all rights.

Definition of right

Objectively - it is anything which is owed or due.

Subjectively -that is, as residing in a person, right is a moral power, bound to be respected by others, of
doing, possessing, or requiring something.

Kinds of Rights
1. Natural rights
2. Human rights
3. Civil rights
4. Ecclesiastical or religious rights
5. Alienable and inalienable Rights
6. Right of jurisdiction
7. Right of property
8. Juridical right
9. Non-Juridical rights
Natural rights - are those based on the natural law, that is, on human nature.

Human rights - are those based on human positive laws, either those enacted by the State or a religious
sect.

Civil rights - are those dependent upon the laws of the state.

Ecclesiastical - or religious rights are those dependent upon the laws of a church or a religious sect.

Alienable and Inalienable Rights

Alienable rights are those, civil or religious rights, which can be surrendered, renounced, or removed,
such as the right to decent livelihood.

Right of jurisdiction - is the power of lawful authority to govern his subjects and to make laws for them.

Right of property - is the power to own, to sell, to barter, to lend, to change, or give away one's personal
possessions.

Juridical right - refers to all rights insofar as they are based on laws. These rights must be respected,
allowed, fulfilled, as a matter of strict justice.

Non-Juridical rights are those which are founded on laws, either natural or human, but on virtue. Thus,
these are also called moral rights.
Definition of Duty

Objectively - it is anything we are obliged to do or to omit.

Subjectively - It is a moral obligation incumbent upon a person of doing, omitting, or avoiding something.

Duty is a moral obligation because it depends upon freewill. As such it resides on a person. Duty is
defined by law, any willful neglect of duty makes the person accountable for such act.

Kinds of Duties:
1. Natural duties
2. Positive duties
3. Affirmative duties
4. Negative duties

Natural duties are those imposed by natural law such as, the duty to care for our health.

Positive duties are those imposed by a human positive law such as the duty to pay taxes and to observe
traffic rules.

Affirmative duties are those which require the performance of a certain act, such as casting a ballot
during election: applying for a business license.

Negative duties are those which require the omission of a certain act such as not carrying illegal firearms,
or not destroying the property of other.
Ethics as Value Education

Ethics relies solely on human reason to investigate truths. Ethics takes the form of Value Education. A
value is something a person prizes, cherishes and esteems as important to him. The aim of Value
Education is to guide the individual in choosing wisely his values and in acting upon them.

Man is a person who possesses an intellect (insight) and will (volition). Person is considered as self or ego
which implies self sufficiency of the person and implies worth or value.

The first and most fundamental of the values is self.

For example - Actions are values because they are the result of intellect and will, motivated towards
something desirable (another value).

Value is intimately related to the search for meaning in human life. Life is meaningful when a man has
found something capable of arousing his commitment to it, something deserving for his best efforts,
something worth living for and worth dying for.

Values enable man to change, to establish self control and self direction.
What Are Values?

"Values" is the term given to those ideas, behaviors, and actions that are important to us. Values are those
things worth fighting for and those things worth sacrificing for. They're what we hold most dear. Our
values strongly influence our decision making and help determine where we place our emphasis on our
personal and professional lives. Values form the basis for our understanding of ethics.

Within society, we have personal values and societal values. Our personal values are ours alone and are
informed by our upbringing, cultural and ethnic background, religious beliefs and personal experiences.
Because personal values are unique to each individual, they are not a proper platform on which to base
professional ethics, though they may inform how we view, appreciate and approach ethical behavior.

It comes from the Latin word "valere" which means "to be strong or to be worth".

Values can be defined as broad preferences concerning appropriate courses of actions or outcomes. As
such, values reflect a person's sense of right and wrong or what "ought" to be. "Equal rights for all",
"Excellence deserves admiration", and "People should be treated with respect and dignity" are
representatives of values.

In ethics, value denotes the degree of importance of some thing or action, with the aim of determining
what actions are best to do or what way is best to live (normative ethics), or to describe the significance of
different actions. Value systems are proscriptive and prescriptive beliefs; they affect ethical behavior of a
person or are the basis of their intentional activities. Often primary values are strong and secondary
values are suitable for changes.
What makes an action valuable may in turn depend on the ethical values of the objects it increases,
decreases or alters. An object with "ethic value" may be termed an "ethic or philosophic good" (noun
sense)

There are some values, though, that are essentially universally held by society. These societal values are
those ideals that are held most dear by culture or group, and these are the values from which we derive
our understanding and expectation of ethics and ethical behavior. Such ideals include:

✓ Integrity

✓ Honesty

✓ Hard work

✓ Kindness

✓ Compassion

✓ Empathy

✓ Sympathy

✓ Justice

✓ Bravery
Integrity - the quality of being honest and having strong moral principles; moral uprightness.

"he is known to be a man of integrity", "I never doubted his integrity"

Honesty - Honesty is when you speak the truth and act truthfully. Many children think honesty means you
"don't tell a lie"-- and that is definitely part of being honest. But honesty means more than not lying. A
more complete definition of honesty shows that an honest person doesn't do things that are morally
wrong.

Hard work - a great deal of effort or endurance. Working intelligently and vigorously at a given task to
complete it with maximum efficiency.

"it takes hard work to be successful in business"

Kindness - Kindness is defined as the quality of being friendly, generous, and considerate. Affection,
gentleness, warmth, concern, and care are words that are associated with kindness. While kindness has a
connotation of meaning someone is naive or weak, that is not the case. Being kind often requires courage
and strength.

Compassion - sympathetic pity and concern for the sufferings or misfortunes of others. Compassion
motivates people to go out of their way to help the physical, mental, or emotional
You sent
pains of another and themselves.

"the victims should be treated with compassion"

Empathy - the ability to understand and share the feelings of another.

"what is really important about learning a language is learning empathy for another culture"

Sympathy - is a shared feeling, usually of sorrow, pity or compassion for another person. You show
concern for another person when you feel sympathy for them.... With empathy, you put yourself in
another's shoes, often feeling things more deeply than if you just felt sympathy.

The differences between the most commonly used meanings of these two terms is:

sympathy is feeling compassion, sorrow, or pity for the hardships that another person encounters

empathy is putting yourself in the shoes of another, which is why actors often talk about it.

Justice - is the morally fair and right state of everything. To have justice as a person's character trait
means that they are just and treat everyone the same, or how they would like to be treated.

Formal justice - is the impartial, consistent and strict application of established rules or laws; material
justice concerns the justice or injustice of the content of rules or laws.

Now formal justice can be defined as treating persons in accordance with their rights, where the question
of what a person's rights are.
Bravery - the quality or state of having or showing mental or moral strength to face danger, fear, or
difficulty: courageous behavior or character.

"perhaps I'll get a medal for bravery"

These ideals, these so-called universal values, help guide us toward ethical behavior and ethical decision
making. They help inform us of what is expected of us and what actions we should take.
You sent
Personal Values

Personal values evolve from circumstances with the external world and can change over time. Integrity in
the application of values refers to its continuity; persons have integrity if they apply their values
appropriately regardless of arguments or negative reinforcement from others. Values are applied
appropriately when they are applied in the right area.

For example, it would be appropriate to apply religious values in times of happiness as well as in times of
despair.

Personal values are implicitly related to choice; they guide decisions by allowing for an individual's choices
to be compared to each choice's associated values.

Personal values developed early in life may be resistant to change. They may be derived from those of
particular groups or systems, such as culture, religion, and political party. However, personal values are
not universal; one's genes, family, nation and historical environment help determine one's personal
values. This is not to say that the value concepts themselves are not universal, merely that each
individual possess a unique conception of them.
Example: A personal knowledge of the appropriate values for their own genes, feelings and experience.

Personal value of other persons is the dignity of that other person.

Your values are the things that you believe are important in the way you live and work. They (should)
determine your priorities. and, deep down, they are probably the measures you use to tell if your life is
turning out the way you want it to.

Types of values

Values tend to influence attitudes and behavior and these types include

1. ethical/moral values

2. doctrinal/ideological (political, religious) values

3. social values

4. aesthetic values

Ethical/moral values A person who knows the difference between right and wrong and chooses right is
moral. A person whose morality is reflected in his willingness to do the right thing even if it is hard or
dangerous - is ethical. Ethics are moral values in action.
Moral values are relative values that protect life and are respectful of the dual life value of self and others.
The great moral values, such as truth, freedom, charity, etc., have one thing in common

Doctrinal/ideological values

Doctrine (from Latin: doctrina, meaning "teaching", "instruction" or "doctrine") is a codification of beliefs
or a body of teachings or instructions, taught principles or positions, as the essence of teachings in a
given branch of knowledge or in a belief system.

Ideological - is an adjective that describes political, cultural, or religious beliefs. An ideology is a body of
ideas, and those who agree with the main idea of something take an ideological stand to support it.

Social values - are a set of moral principles defined by society dynamics, institutions, traditions and
cultural beliefs. These values are implicit guidelines that provide orientation to individuals and
corporations to conduct themselves properly within a social system.

Aesthetic values - Aesthetic value is the value that an object, event or state of affairs (most
paradigmatically an art work or the natural environment) possesses in virtue of its capacity to elicit
pleasure (positive value) or displeasure (negative value) when appreciated or experienced aesthetically.

The Nature of Aesthetic Value proposes that aesthetic goodness, the property in virtue of which works of
art are valuable, is a matter of their capacity in appropriate circumstances to give satisfaction.
Kinds of Values - According to the level of human life to which they correspond.
1. Biological Values
2. Social Values
3. Rational Values

Biological Values - necessary to the physical survival of man as an organism

1. Life and health
2. Food and shelter
3. Work

Social Values - necessary to the sensual needs and fulfillment

1. Leisure and Sex
2. Marriage
3. Family and Home
4. Parental Authority
5. Education

Rational Values - necessary to the functions and fulfillment of intellect and will
1. Understanding and Control of Nature
2. Guide and Control of Oneself
3. Solidarity
4. Parental Authority with Fellowmen
5. Religion
Moral Values - are those that directly pertain to the function of intellect and will: those choices, decisions,
and actions, by which man's national faculties are involved and perfected.

Characteristics of Moral Values

1. Moral Values are goods having intrinsic qualities of desirability

2. Moral Values are universal - they appeal to man as man and to man as a specific individual

3. Moral Values are obligatory - they come as natural duty, because possession of them is expected as an
integral quality to man as rational creature directed by
You sent
natural powers towards truth, beauty and goodness.

What is virtue?

The ancient Romans used the Latin word virtus (derived from vir, their word for man) to refer to all of the
"excellent qualities of men, including physical strength, valorous conduct, and moral rectitude." The
French words vertu and virtu came from this Latin root. In the 13th century, the word virtue was
<<<borrowed into English>>.

Virtue (Latin: virtus, Ancient Greek: ἀρετή «arete>>) is moral excellence. A virtue is a trait or quality that
is deemed to be morally good and thus is valued as a foundation of principle and good moral being.
Personal virtues are characteristics valued as promoting collective and individual greatness.
Four moral virtues according to scholastic philosophy

1. Prudence - treats how you handle yourself

2. Justice treats your interactions with other people

3. Fortitude/courage - treats your aversion

4. Temperance/moderation - treats your desire

Desires
(Moderation)

Yourself Others
(Prudence) (Justice)

Aversions
(Courage)
 Aristotle's Cardinal Virtues and Their Subdivisions

Subjective Parts1 Potential Parts2 Integral Parts3

Prudence: In Self-Direction Ability in Command Memory

Habit of choosing right In Domestic Behaviors Ability in Execution Docility
means to achieve In Public Affairs Sagacity
worthy ends Valuation
Reasoning
Inventiveness
Foresight
Circumspection
caution
Justice: Commutative Justice Religion Give rights to others
Habit of rendering the Distributive Justice Piety to Parents Avoid injury to others
other his/her rights Legal Justice Obedience
Respect to Superiors
Liberality
Fidelity
Friendliness
Gratitude
patriotism
Temperance: Frugality Continence Sense of Shame
Habit of moderation Abstinence Meekness Sense of Propriety
in use of Sobriety Clemency Calmness
pleasurable things Chastity Humility
Modesty Self-Respect
Dignity Studiousness
Good Temper Good Manners
Proper Dress
Fortitude: None Same as integrals About Actions:
Habit of restraining Magnanimitiy
fear or moderation of Magnificence
rash behavior in the About Bearing:
face of danger or Patience
difficulty Perseverance

Notes:

1. Subjective Parts: sub-categories of the virtues that are distinct from each other.

2. Potential Parts: Virtues related to the cardinal virtues but are not a complete expression of
the cardinal virtue.

3. Integral Parts: Conditions and actions that are necessary to perfect the virtue as a habit.
Aristotle's ethics is an inquiry into how humans should live in order to achieve the highest good,
eudiamonia in Greek. This term is often translated as 'happiness' but can also mean 'flourishing'. Humans
seek this highest good, this flourishing, in accordance with human nature, which, for Aristotle, is set apart
by rationality

Aristotle describes virtue as a habit, a tendency of character to act in accordance with practical reason
toward worthy ends.

Furthermore, Aristotle regarded virtue as occupying a state between extremes, a state between two
vices, one of excess and the other of deficiency. The cardinal virtues are those habits of character which
are primary in guiding the individual toward that 'golden mean' in particular situations.

Other variables Aristotle recognized as influencing our ability to develop virtues include the culture in
general, sufficient income, enough power to resist being overwhelmed by the less virtuous, a positive
body image, parents who live long enough to raise you, and peer support.

I - Prudence

It is characterized by "being careful about one's choices, not taking undue risks, and not saying or doing
things that might later be regretted." Prudence's roots date back to Aristotle's writings on practical
wisdom, in which he hails it as a crucial, linking virtue.

Prudence is described as an intellectual habit (virtue) enabling the person to deliberate properly in order
to choose the virtuous course, the right means of action in any here and now situation. As such, it is
primary over the other cardinal virtues. Its integral parts all relate to cognitive activities related to making
good choices.
Currently, prudence is usually used in reference to financial or political situations, but to psychologists
prudence's meaning extends much further. According to Peterson and Seligman (2004), "Individuals with
this strength have the following attributes:

1. They take a foresighted stance toward their personal future, thinking and caring about it, planning for
it, and holding long-term goals and aspirations.

2. They are skilled at resisting self-defeating impulses and at persisting in beneficial activities that lack
immediate appeal.

3. They show a style of thinking about everyday life choices that is reflective, deliberate, and practical.

4. They harmonize the multiple goals and interests that motivate them, forming these into a stable,
coherent, and un-conflicted form of life."

II - Justice

It is the concept of moral rightness based on ethics, rationality, law, natural law, religion, fairness, or
equity, along with the punishment of the breach of said ethics.

According to most theories of justice, it is overwhelmingly important: [John Rawls] claims that "Justice is
the first virtue of social institutions, as truth is of systems of thought." Justice can be thought of as distinct
from and more fundamental than benevolence, charity, mercy, generosity or compassion.
Justice has traditionally been associated with concepts of fate, reincarnation or Divine Providence, The
association of justice with fairness has thus been historically and culturally rare and is perhaps chiefly a
modern innovation [in western societies.

It is a familiar virtue to most of us and can be defined as rendering to others his/her rights.

Variations of justice

1. Utilitarianism

It is a form of consequentialism, where punishment is forward-looking. Justified by the ability to achieve

future social benefits resulting in crime reduction, the moral worth of an action is determined by its
outcome.

2. Retributive Justice

It regulates proportionate response to crime proven by lawful evidence, so that punishment is justly
imposed and considered as morally correct and fully deserved. The law of retaliation (lex talionis) is a
military theory of retributive justice, which says that reciprocity should be equal to the wrong suffered;
"life for life, wound for wound, stripe for stripe."

3. Restorative Justice

It is concerned not so much with retribution and punishment as with (a) making the victim whole and (b)
reintegrating the offender into society. This approach frequently brings an offender and a victim together,
so that the offender can better understand the effect his/her offense had on the victim.
4. Distributive Justice

It is directed at the proper allocation of things - wealth, power, reward, respect - among different people.

5. Oppressive Law

Exercises an authoritarian approach to legislation that is "totally unrelated to justice", a tyrannical

interpretation of law is one in which the population lives under restriction from unlawful legislation.

Some theorists, such as the classical Greeks and Romans, conceive of justice as a virtue-a property of
people, and only derivatively of their actions and the institutions they create Others emphasize actions or
institutions, and only derivatively the people who bring them about. The source of justice has variously
been attributed to harmony, divine command, natural law, or human creation.

III - Fortitude

Enables a person to stand firm against and endure the hardships of life, to restrain fear, or to moderate
fear in the face of danger, all done in accordance with reason.

Fortitude is one of the four cardinal virtues. As such, it can be practiced by anyone, since, unlike the
theological virtues, the cardinal virtues are not, in themselves, the gifts of God through grace but the
outgrowth of habit.

Fortitude is commonly called courage, but it is different from what much of what we think of as courage
today. Fortitude is always reasoned and reasonable; the person exercising fortitude is willing to put
himself in danger if necessary, but he does not seek danger for danger's sake.
St. Thomas Aquinas ranked fortitude as the third of the cardinal virtues, because it serves prudence and
justice, the higher virtues. Fortitude is the virtue that allows us to overcome fear and to remain steady in
our will in the face of obstacles. Prudence and justice are the virtues through which we decide what needs
to be done; fortitude gives us the strength to do it.

IV - Temperance

(Sophrosyne) in Greek is defined as "moderation in action. thought, or feeling; restraint." It is the habit of
moderation in the use of pleasurable things.

It has been studied by religious thinkers, philosophers, and more recently, psychologists, particularly in
the positive psychology movement.

It is considered a virtue, a core value that can be seen consistently across time and cultures. It is
considered one of the four cardinal virtues, for it is believed that no virtue could be sustained in the face
of inability to control oneself, if the virtue was opposed to some desire.

Temperance is generally defined by control over excess, so that it has many classes, such as abstinence,
chastity, modesty, humility, prudence, self-regulation, and forgiveness and mercy; each of these involves
restraining some impulse, such as sexual desire, vanity, or anger.
Other Values

1. Religious Values

2. Cultural Values

3. Social Values

Religious Values pertain to man's relationship with God, guiding and regulating his communion with Him

Cultural Values pertain to man's relationship sharing with others in a given community of persons, shaping
their spiritual kinship, and directing their attention to definite ideals of behavior

Social Values pertain to the relationship necessary in the promotion of human society as a whole,
integrating the motivation and interests of members towards the common objective or goal

Hierarchy of Values

It refers to the order of values from the lowest to the highest in importance.

The goods pertaining to the soul, the intellect and will occupy the highest level of importance while the
biological values occupy the lowest rank.
Choosing our Values

Man must be wise enough to choose his values in accordance to their intrinsic worth.

Guides in our preference to choose values

1. Permanent or lasting values must be preferred over temporary values

Example: education over courtship

2. Values favored by greater number of people must be preferred over those that appeal only to the few

Example: Discipline over personal freedom

3. Values that are essential must be preferred over those

4. that are accidental

Example: health over beauty

5. Values that give greater satisfaction must be preferred over those that provide short-lived pleasures

Example: Pursuing your artistic hobby over fanatical devotion to a movie star
The Highest Value - GOD

Summum bonum is a Latin expression meaning <<the highest good», which was introduced by the
Roman philosopher Cicero, to correspond to the Idea of the Good in ancient Greek philosophy. The
summum bonum is generally thought of as being an end in itself, and at the same time containing all
other goods.

The term was used in medieval philosophy. In the Thomist synthesis of Aristotelianism and Christianity,
the highest good is usually defined as the life of the righteous and/or the life led in communion with God
and according to God's precepts. In Kantianism, it was used to describe the ultimate importance. the
singular and overriding end which human beings ought to pursue.

He is the Summum Bonum, the ultimate and absolute good that will fulfill all human desires. God is the
ultimate end of human life. God is not only the Alpha and the Omega of the created universe, he is the
preserver of values.

This principle obligates the ethical reasoner to examine all possible goods that bear on an issue, to rank
them in an ascending, and to choose the highest among them as the "master good." Such ranking can be
based on the truths of purpose, goodness, morality, and utility, among others. As such, the concept of
summum bunum characterizes "the morals of all morals" and the ethics of all ethics.

Benefits of Knowing God

What makes knowing God the highest good? As we said the summum bonum is the highest good out of
which all good flows. If we are going to fully give ourselves to the endeavor of studying and knowing God,
we must be fully convinced of the benefits of this endeavor.
I - Eternal Life/Quality of Life

The first benefit is eternal life. Eternal life is not primarily about length of life, for everybody will live
eternally in one of two places. It is also about quality of life. This means the more we know God and the
more we understand and build a relationship with him, the more our quality of life increases. We start to
live life the way it was meant to be lived.

We study God to have a relationship with him that enriches our quality of life and will continue throughout
eternity as we know God. We study God to know what life is, and therefore, what life is not.

II - Proper Evaluation of Humanity

There is something else that happens when we encounter God. We begin to rightly evaluate ourselves and
others. Studying God is like looking at a mirror. We see our faults, our problems, and maybe even our
virtues. This happens in order that we may be changed.

III - Knowing God Reveals Our Sin

Many people have a tendency to wrongly evaluate themselves Many be they judge themselves by looking
at other people. am really smart in comparison with him. I am really beautiful in comparison with her. I am
really holy in comparison with those people. Pride exists because people are looking at the wrong person.
They are looking at themselves or one another, instead of God. Pride would be eliminated if people had a
proper relationship with God. Knowing God not only helps us evaluate ourselves but also others. As our
society turns farther away from God, the more it will be common for man to praise evil and hate good.
IV - Knowing God Helps Us Give Value to Humanity

When we look at our society and see the killing of innocent babies, sex trafficking, the growing murder
rates and suicide rates around the world, we should realize this is happening because people don't know
God and can't properly value human life. Man is made in the image of God, and therefore, has value. I
have value because in some way or another, even though I sin, I bear the image of God. Having God as
my maker and having been created in his likeness, gives me innate value. Humanity has value.

V - Proper Evaluation of Morality

The next benefit of knowing God is a proper evaluation of morality. We have hinted at this already in
looking at humanity, but a proper understanding of God also affects how we evaluate morality-what is
right and wrong. We see varying lifestyles in society based on our understanding of God.

When society starts to deny God, they will become an unwise, incompetent, and loveless society. Without
proper thinking. proper decision making, and proper love, the whole value system of society will be
fractured.

VI - Not Knowing God Leads to Approval of Sin

When you look at society and see the movies, the media, and the people that are elevated or put on
pedestals, it is a picture of the result of not knowing God.
Society says sex before marriage is right, homosexuality is right, pornography is right, the murder of the
innocent is right, drug and alcohol abuse is right, and the worship of the biblical God and the practice of
biblical values is wrong, and often met with persecution.

The knowledge of God is necessary to help us properly evaluate morality-what is right and wrong. We
must study God to properly calibrate our hearts and minds.

VII - Peace and Security

Therefore, the proverb means that those who "know God and his characteristics" will find safety, security,
and peace. When others are afraid and fearful at events in life, God keeps those who know him at peace
and protects them.

VIII - Increased Wisdom

The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom. Next, when Solomon says, the knowledge of the Holy One
is understanding, he probably is just using Hebrew parallelism to say the same thing. To fear the Lord
means to know the Holy One, and to receive wisdom is the same as understanding. Solomon is using a
parallel statement for emphasis.

IX - Multiplication of Blessings

Peter says the knowledge of God leads to "multiplied" blessings. It is through the knowledge of God that
grace, peace, and power are multiplied to believers.
X - Multiplied Grace

The first multiplied blessing he names is "grace," which means unmerited favor.

XI - Multiplied Peace

"May grace and peace be multiplied to you in the knowledge of God and of Jesus our Lord" (emphasis
mine). In the Bible there are two kinds of peace. There is peace with God that we receive by accepting
Christ as Lord and Savior

XII - Multiplied Power

Finally, we also receive power. Being in God's presence and knowing him brings a certain amount of
power in the life of the seeker. Peter says the person who knows God receives power to be godly.

XIII - A Worthy and Pleasing Life

The next benefit of knowing God is a worthy and pleasing life.

Christians who offer God "everything plus" are people who are "pleasing" to God. He enjoys them and
rejoices over them with songs. That is what happens when a person really knows God; they start to
demonstrate God's worth in varying ways.
XIV - Fruitfulness

The next benefit of knowing God is a fruitful life. And we pray this in order that you may live a life worthy
of the Lord and may please him in every way:

"bearing fruit in every good work, growing in the knowledge of God".

XV - Endurance, Patience, Joy, and Thanksgiving

✓Endurance

Endurance means "to bear up under a heavy weight" Through knowing God, we receive power to endure a
hard life situation. God gives us grace to persevere through trials.

✓Patience

What is the difference between endurance and patience? It seems that the difference between patience
and endurance is the fact that patience primarily has to do with people. God gives us power to endure
difficult people without retaliation.

✓Joy

Joy is an inward attitude that has nothing to do with circumstances, but is based on one's relationship with
God. A person that is growing in the knowledge of God can go through difficult situations with joy
✓ Thanksgiving

Finally, we see that thanksgiving is also a result of knowing God. Thanksgiving is the outward expression
of this internal joy in all circumstances. We saw this perfectly modeled by Job as he thanked God even in
the midst of his trials. This was a man "filled with the knowledge of God's will.

The Benefits of Wisdom

Wisdom is a byproduct of knowing God. When you know God, you have a less problematic life, and you
are victorious when problems come.

Wisdom provides the tools to face disappointment in light of the wisdom of God's Word, which tells us He
is sovereign and has a plan and destiny for each of us.
Members:
Papiona, Angelica
Galamiton, Yazzih
Balbarona, Lean
Lautingco, Joane
Nabor, Rexter
Cambaya, Carl Justine
Magbutay, Rain Paul