INPUT/OUTPUT METHODS

INPUT/OUTPUT METHODS/TECHNIQUES

• The technique of data transfer between a

microcomputer and an external device is
called input/output (I/O).
• Peripherals are the I/O devices that
connected to a microcomputer and provide an
efficient means of communication between
the microcomputer and the outside world.
• I/O methods are divided into two; Virtual I/O and
Physical I/O.
• VIRTUAL/DIRECT I/O
• Data transfer between the microcomputer and the
I/O device occurs by calling I/O routines provided by
the operating system. It is only suitable for some I/O
devices especially simple ones such as LEDs, simple
switches. The device is always ready for data
transfer thus no checking of status is required.
• Demerit-limited usage
 PHYSICAL I/O
• There are three ways of transferring data between
a microcomputer and physical I/O devices:
• Programmed I/O
• Interrupt I/O
• Direct memory access.
 PROGRAMMED I/O
• The microprocessor executes a program to perform all data
transfers between the microcomputer and the external
device (the CPU has direct control over I/O) i.e.
• Sensing status
• Read/write commands
• Transferring data
• The device indicates readiness to transfer data. It has a flag
that can be interrogated by the CPU. The CPU under
program control, reads (polls) the status waiting for the
device to indicate readiness for transfer of data. This is easy
to understand and implement though it wastes CPU time.
 Programmed I/O is divided into two:
Unconditional I/O when the CPU can send data to the peripheral device at any
time i.e. the external device is always ready for data transfer.
Conditional I/O, the microprocessor outputs data to an external device via
handshaking. This means that data transfer occurs via the exchange of control
signals between the microprocessor and an external device. Handshaking
begins when one device sends a message to another device indicating that it
wants to establish a communications channel. The two devices then send
several messages back and forth that enable them to agree on a
communications protocol. Handshaking occurs before the transfer of data or
any other communication and just after the establishment of the physical
channel between the two entities. Handshaking is helpful in checking the
quality and speed of the transmission and also the necessary authority needed
for same. A disadvantage of conditional programmed I/O is that the
microcomputer needs to check the status bit (a conversion complete signal of
the A/D converter) by waiting in a loop when the CPU has to check the status
of the external device before data transfer. The CPU waits for I/O module to
complete operation thus CPU time is wasted.
 Operation of Polled I/O
• CPU requests I/O operation
• I/O module performs operation
• I/O module sets status bits
• CPU checks status bits periodically
• I/O module does not inform CPU directly
• I/O module does not interrupt CPU
• CPU may wait or come back later.
• CPU issues address- identifies the module if more than
one
• CPU issues command for control, test or read/write
 Programmed I/O addressing
Standard I/O or port I/O (called isolated I/O)
• Separate address spaces and thus requires I/O
or memory select lines(IO/ M pin) As a result
the IO/M pin is active when an I/O port is
referred and low when memory address is
referred.
• Need I/O or memory select lines —Special
commands for I/O
• Limited spaces
 PIO addressing
Memory-mapped I/O
• The microprocessor does not use the IO / M control
pin. Instead, the microprocessor uses an unused
address pin to distinguish between memory and I/O.
• Devices and memory share an address space and thus
large selection of memory access commands is
available.
• No special commands for I/O
• Large selection of memory access commands available
 PIO
 Good for well-defined periodic slow devices
 Poor for input devices and non-periodic
devices
• Wastes CPU time due to polling
 INTERRUPT DRIVEN I/O

•Interrupt I/O is a device-initiated I/O transfer.

•An external device can force the microprocessor
to stop executing the current program temporarily
so that it can execute another program known as an
interrupt service routine (ISR). After completing
this program, a return from interrupt instruction
can be executed at the end of the service routine to
return control at the right place in the main
program.
 Operation of interrupt driven I/O
• External device activates the interrupt (INTR) pin of the processor chip.
The device has an output signal that is connected to a special signal of
the CPU. The device asserts the signal when it is ready to transfer data
(interrupt request)
• The CPU may ignore the request-the interrupt is said to be masked.
However some CPUs have a special interrupt that is non maskable for
very important interrupts such as power failure, alarms etc
• The microcomputer completes the current instruction and saves the
contents of the program counter and the status register in the stack.
• The microcomputer then loads an address into the program counter to
branch to a subroutine-like program called the interrupt service
routine(ISR)
• ISR is executed
• The last instruction of the ISR is a RETURN, which loads the addresses
saved in the stack before going to the ISR into the PC.
 Advantages/disadvantages of Interrupt
Driven I/O
• Overcomes CPU waiting
• No repeated CPU checking of device
• I/O module interrupts when ready
• Good for non –period, asynchronous devices
• Requires extra programming to set up the
interrupt and ISR
• Can be difficult to test and debug e.g. keyboard
input
 DIRECT MEMORY ACCESS (DMA)

• This is when data can be transferred between

microcomputer memory and an external
device such as the hard disk, without
microprocessor (CPU) involvement. A special
chip called the DMA controller is typically used
with the microprocessor for transferring data.
 Key points on DMA

• Requires a DMA controller

• Data is transferred without the CPU being involved
• CPU programs the DMAc to:
• Set transfer direction-input or output
• Start address in memory
• Number of bytes to transfer
• Copy from memory to memory
• DMAc performs the transfer between the memory
and the I/O device.
• DMAc interrupts the CPU on completion
 Advantages/disadvantages of DMA

• Requires additional hardware

• Good for transferring large blocks of data
• Good for high data rates e.g. hard disks,
network card