AUTOMATION &

ROBOTICS
 Syllabus
 Introduction to CIM - components of CIM - process design for CIM - Automated flow lines - methods of work
transport - automated flow lines with and without storage buffers.

 AUTOMATED ASSEMBLY: Automated inspection, online and offline inspection, historical perspective of
automated assembly, why and when automated assembly, parts of automated assembly system, part feeding and
orienting, feed track, escapement and placement devices.

 AUTOMATED MATERIAL HANDLING AND INSPECTION: Automated guided vehicle system, components of AGVs,
control system, routing, design features, AS/R

 FUNDAMENTALS OF ROBOT: Robot anatomy, classification of robotic systems, robots in assembly, analysis of
assembly systems with synchronous transfer and free transfer, economics of automated assembly.

2
 TEXT BOOKS:
Books
1. Mikell P Groover, "Automation, Production Systems and Computer - Integrated Manufacturing", Pearson India
Education Services, 2016. (Topics: Manufacturing and Automation, Automated Assembly, Automated
Material Handling and Inspection)

2. Mikell P Groover, "Industrial Robotics – Technology, Programming and Applications", Tata McGraw Hill
Education, 2017. (Topics: Fundamentals of Robot, Transformation and Kinematics)

 REFERENCE BOOKS:

1. Nanua Singh, "Systems Approach to Computer Integrated Design and Manufacturing", John Wiley and Sons, New
York, 1996. (Topic: Design of AGVS and AS/RS)

2. Roger Hannam, "Computer Integrated Manufacturing: From Concepts to Realisation", Prentice Hall, 1997.

3. Richard P Paul, "Robot Manipulators, Mathematics, Programming and Control", MIT Press, 1981.

4. Saeed Niku, "Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control, Applications", John Wiley and Sons, 2011. (Topics:
Fundamentals of Robot, Transformation and Kinematics)
3
Manufacturing
Manufacturing originated from the two Latin words:
manus (Hands) and factus (Make, Do) = Making by Hand

Automation
Automation originated from two Greek Words:
auto – (Self) and matos (Moving) = Self Acting Machine

Manufacturing
Manufacturing is the process of converting raw materials,
components or parts into finished goods that meet a
customer's expectations or specifications.

Automation in Manufacturing
Automation can be defined as a term applied to all
measures taken which will cause a process to be carried
out wholly or — according to a previously set program
without the intervention of human activity for its control.

4
5
 Mechanization:
Mechanization is normally defined as the replacement of a human
task with a machine.

Automation:
Automation is a trend of science and technology, which causes a
process to be carried out according to a previously set program
without the intervention of the human activity for its control. 6
Automation and Mechanization

7
PRODUCTION SYSTEM

Three categories of manufacturing systems:

(a) manual work system, (b) worker-machine system,
and (c) fully automated system

8
Examples of Manual Work Systems
A manual work system consists of one or more workers performing one or more tasks without the aid of powered
tools.
A machinist using a file to round the edges of a rectangular part that has just been milled
A quality control inspector using a micrometer to measure the diameter of a shaft
A material handling worker using a dolly to move cartons in a warehouse
A team of assembly workers putting together a piece of machinery using hand tools.

Examples of worker-machine systems

The workers and machines are combined to take advantage of their relative strengths and attributes.
A machinist operating an engine lathe to fabricate a part for a product
A fitter and an industrial robot working together in an arc–welding work cell
A crew of workers operating a rolling mill that converts hot steel slabs into flat plates
A production line in which the products are moved by mechanized conveyor and the workers at some
of the stations use power tools to accomplish their processing or assembly tasks.

9
Examples of automated manufacturing systems
 Automated machine tools that process parts
 Transfer lines that perform a series of machining operations
 Automated assembly systems
 Manufacturing systems that use industrial robots to perform processing or assembly operations
 Automatic material handling and storage systems to integrate manufacturing operations
 Automatic inspection systems for quality control .

10
Automation in Production Systems

The automated elements of the production system can

be separated into two categories:
(1)Automation of the manufacturing systems in
the factory,
(2)Computerization of the manufacturing support
systems.

11
 Automated Manufacturing Systems
 Automated manufacturing systems operate in the factory on the physical product.
 They perform operations such as processing, assembly, inspection, and material handling, in many cases
accomplishing more than one of these operations in the same system.
 They are called automated because they perform their operations with a reduced level of human
participation compared with the corresponding manual process.
 In some highly automated systems, there is virtually no human participation.
 Examples of automated manufacturing systems include:
 Automated machine tools that process parts
 Transfer lines that perform a series of machining operations
 Automated assembly systems
 Manufacturing systems that use industrial robots to perform processing or assembly operations
 Automatic material handling and storage systems to integrate manufacturing operations
 Automatic inspection systems for quality control

12
 Automated tube processing-
Transfer Line (Video)
https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=Hg-FjrD6Bbo

13
Automated
Assembly
Line (Video)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iR5anYJxXhM 14
 Automated
Storage
&Retrieval
System
(AS/RS)
Video

15
https://youtu.be/S8zDRu72HD0
Automated
Quality
Control
and
Inspection

16
https://youtu.be/iNNAkCX8Gpo
Automated Quality
Control and
Inspection eg:
Valve Inspection

https://youtu.be/xLzVEt3TH1Y 17
Fixed Automation:
Fixed automation is a system in which the sequence of processing (or assembly) operations is fixed by the equipment
configuration.
Each operation in the sequence is usually simple, involving perhaps a plain linear or rotational motion or an uncomplicated
combination of the two, such as feeding a rotating spindle.
It is the integration and coordination of many such operations in one piece of equipment that makes the system complex.
Typical features of fixed automation are
(1) high initial investment for custom-engineered equipment,
(2) high production rates, and
(3) inflexibility of the equipment to accommodate product variety.
Examples of fixed automation include machining transfer lines and automated assembly machines.

Programmable Automation.
 In programmable automation, the production equipment is designed with the capability to change the sequence of
operations to accommodate different product configurations.
The operation sequence is controlled by a program, which is a set of instructions coded so that they can be read and
interpreted by the system.
Programmable automated systems are used in low- and medium-volume production. The parts or products are typically
made in batches.
New programs can be prepared and entered into the equipment to produce new products.
Some of the features that characterize programmable automation include,
(1) high investment in general-purpose equipment,
(2) lower production rates than fixed automation,
(3) flexibility to deal with variations and changes in product configuration, and
(4) high suitability for batch production.
Examples of programmable automation include numerically controlled (NC) machine tools, industrial robots, and
18
programmable logic controllers.
Flexible Automation

Flexible automation is an extension of programmable automation.

A flexible automated system is capable of producing a variety of parts or products with virtually no time
lost for changeovers from one design to the next.
There is no lost production time while reprogramming the system and altering the physical setup (tooling,
fixtures, machine settings).
Accordingly, the system can produce various mixes and schedules of parts or products instead of
requiring that they be made in batches.
What makes flexible automation possible is that the differences between parts processed by the system
are not significant, so the amount of changeover between designs is minimal.
 Features of flexible automation include
(1) high investment for a custom-engineered system,
(2) continuous production of variable mixtures of parts or products,
(3) medium production rates, and
(4) flexibility to deal with product design variations.
Examples of flexible automation are flexible manufacturing systems that perform machining
processes.

19
Computerized Manufacturing Support Systems
 Automation of the manufacturing support systems is aimed at reducing the amount of manual and clerical
effort in product design, manufacturing planning and control, and the business functions of the firm.
 Nearly all modern manufacturing support systems are implemented using computers. Indeed, computer
technology is used to implement automation of the manufacturing systems in the factory as well.
 Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) denotes the pervasive use of computer systems to design the
products, plan the production, control the operations, and perform the various information processing
functions needed in a manufacturing firm. True CIM involves integrating all of these functions in one system
that operates throughout the enterprise.
 Other terms are used to identify specific elements of the CIM system; for example, computer-aided design
(CAD) supports the product design function. Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) is used for functions
related to manufacturing engineering, such as process planning and numerical control part programming.
Some computer systems perform both CAD and CAM, and so the term CAD/CAM is used to indicate the
integration of the two into one system.
 Computer-integrated manufacturing involves the information-processing activities that provide the data and
knowledge required to successfully produce the product.
 These activities are accomplished to implement the four basic manufacturing support functions:
(1) business functions,
(2) product design,
(3) manufacturing planning, and
(4) manufacturing control 20
 Computer Integrated Manufacturing
 Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) refers to the use of computer-controlled machinery
and automation systems in manufacturing products.
 CIM combines various technologies like computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-aided
manufacturing (CAM) to provide an error-free manufacturing process that reduces manual
labour and automates repetitive tasks.

CIM Definition
“CIM is defined as the integration of the total manufacturing enterprise through the use of integrated
systems and data communications coupled with new managerial philosophies that improve
organizational and personnel efficiency.” by Shrensker, Computer Automated Systems Association of the
Society of Manufacturing Engineers (CASA/SME)

21
Design Process

22
Sequential Engineering (Traditional Engineering Approach)

23
Concurrent Engineering (Simultaneous Engineering)

24
25
CIM Wheel

26
Need For CIM (Reasons for Implementing CIM)
 Increased flexibility towards new products
 Reduced Costs (i.e. the cost of direct and indirect labour)
 Improved scheduling flexibility
 Reduced downtime
 Maintaining correct inventory levels
 Improved quality and accuracy
 Repeatability
 Control of data flow
 Time Efficiency-Reduction of lead time
 Improved productivity
 Streamlined manufacturing flow from order to delivery
 Creates truly interactive system
 Accurate data transferability
 Faster responses to data changes
 Easier training and re-training facilities Levels of Integration of CIM

27
Tangible and Intangible benefits of CIM

28
Work In Process Inventory (Analogy)

29
Reasons for Automating (Need for Automation)
1. Increase labor productivity.
2. Reduce labor cost
3. Mitigate the effects of labor shortages
4. Reduce or eliminate routine manual and clerical tasks.
5. Improve worker safety
6. Improve product quality
7. Reduce manufacturing lead time
8. Accomplish processes that cannot be done manually
9. Reduction of Work-In-Process Inventory
10.Avoid the high cost of not automating.

30
(*) Automation Migration Strategy

Figure: A typical automation migration

strategy.
Phase-1: Manual production with single
independent workstations.
Phase-2: Automated production stations with
manual handling between stations.
Phase-3: Automated integrated production with
automated handling between stations.

31
 Automation Migration Strategy (Continued………)
Phase 1: Manual production using single-station manned cells operating independently.

This is used for introduction of the new product for reasons already mentioned: quick and low-cost
tooling to get started.

Phase 2: Automated production using single-station automated cells operating

independently.

As demand for the product grows, and it becomes clear that automation can be justified,
then the single stations are automated to reduce labor and increase production rate. Work units are
still moved between workstations manually.

Phase 3: Automated integrated production using a multi-station automated system with serial
operations and automated transfer of work units between stations.

When the company is certain that the product will be produced in mass quantities and for
several years, then integration of the single station automated cells is warranted to further reduce
labor and increase production rate.
32
 Advantages of Automation Migration Strategy

 It allows introduction of the new product in the shortest possible time, since production cells based on
manual workstations are the easiest to design and implement.
 It allows automation to be introduced gradually (in planned phases), as demand for the product grows,
engineering changes in the product are made, and time is provided to do a thorough design job on the
automated manufacturing system.
 It avoids the commitment to a high level of automation from the start, because there is always a risk that
demand for the product will not justify it.

33
Automation Principles and Strategies
The USA Principle

 U-Understand the existing process

 S-Simplify the process
 A-Automate the process

1. Understand the Existing Process

What are the inputs?

What are the outputs?
What exactly happens to the work unit between input and output?
What is the function of the process?
How does it add value to the product?
What are the upstream and downstream operations in the production sequence, and can they be
combined with the process under consideration?

34
2. Simplify the process
What is the purpose of this step or this transport?
Is the step necessary?
Can it be eliminated?
Does it use the most appropriate technology?
How can it be simplified?
Are there unnecessary steps in the process that might be eliminated without detracting from
function?
Can steps be combined?
Can steps be performed simultaneously?
Can steps be integrated into a manually operated production line?

3. Automate the Process

Once the process has been reduced to its simplest form, then automation can be
considered based on the 10 Automation strategies.

35
 (*) Ten Strategies for Automation and Process
Improvement
1. Specialization of operations:
The first strategy involves the use of special-purpose equipment designed to perform one operation with the
greatest possible efficiency. This is analogous to the specialization of labor, which is employed to
improve labor productivity.
2. Combined operations: Production occurs as a sequence of operations. Complex parts may require dozens
or even hundreds of processing steps. The strategy of combined operations involves reducing the number
of distinct production machines or workstations through which the part must be routed. This is
accomplished by performing more than one operation at a given machine, thereby reducing the number of
separate machines needed. Since each machine typically involves a setup, setup time can usually be saved by
this strategy. Material handling effort, nonoperation time, waiting time, and manufacturing lead time
are all reduced.
3. Simultaneous operations:
A logical extension of the combined operations strategy is to simultaneously perform the operations that
are combined at one workstation. In effect, two or more processing (or assembly) operations are being
performed simultaneously on the same work part, thus reducing total processing time.
4. Integration of operations. This strategy involves linking several workstations together into a single
integrated mechanism, using automated work handling devices to transfer parts between stations. In effect,
this reduces the number of separate work centers through which the product must be scheduled. With
more than one workstation, several parts can be processed simultaneously, thereby increasing 36
the
overall output of the system.
 Ten Strategies for Automation and Process Improvement
(Continued…….)
5. Increased flexibility.

This strategy attempts to achieve maximum utilization of equipment for job shop and medium-volume
situations by using the same equipment for a variety of parts or products. It involves the use of
programmable or flexible automation. Prime objectives are to reduce setup time and programming
time for the production machine. This normally translates into lower manufacturing lead time and
less work-in-process.

6. Improved material handling and storage

A great opportunity for reducing nonproductive time exists in the use of automated material handling
and storage systems. Typical benefits include reduced work-in-process, shorter manufacturing lead
times, and lower labor costs.

7. On-line inspection.

Inspection for quality of work is traditionally performed after the process is completed. This means that
any poor-quality product has already been produced by the time it is inspected. Incorporating inspection
into the manufacturing process permits corrections to the process as the product is being made. This
reduces scrap and brings the overall quality of the product closer to the nominal specifications
intended by the designer.
37
 Ten Strategies for Automation and Process Improvement
(Continued…….)

8. Process control and optimization.

This includes a wide range of control schemes intended to operate the individual processes and
associated equipment more efficiently. By this strategy, the individual process times can be reduced
and product quality can be improved.

9. Plant operations control.

While the previous strategy is concerned with the control of individual manufacturing processes, this
strategy is concerned with control at the plant level. It attempts to manage and coordinate the
aggregate operations in the plant more efficiently. Its implementation involves a high level of computer
networking within the factory.

10. Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM)

Taking the previous strategy one level higher, CIM involves extensive use of computer systems, databases,
and networks throughout the enterprise to integrate the factory operations and business functions.

38
 Ten Automation Strategies Summary
Sl Automation Strategy Related Production Variables and Parameters
No.
1. Specialization of operations Analogous to the specialization of labor, which is employed to
improve labor productivity.
Use of special-purpose equipment.
2. Combined operations Material handling effort, nonoperation time, waiting time, and
manufacturing lead time are all reduced.
Reducing the number of distinct production machines or workstations
3. Simultaneous operations Reducing total processing time.
A logical extension of the combined operations strategy
4. Integration of operations Linking several workstations together - With more than one
workstation, several parts can be processed simultaneously,
thereby increasing the overall output of the system.
5. Increased flexibility Maximum utilization of equipment - Prime objectives are to
reduce setup time and programming time for the production
machine.
Results in lower manufacturing lead time and less work-in-
process.
39
 Automation Strategies Summary (Continued…..)
Sl Automation Strategy Related Production Variables and Parameters
No.
6. Improved material Reducing nonproductive time
handling and storage Typical benefits include reduced work-in-process, shorter
manufacturing lead times, and lower labor costs.
7. On-line inspection This reduces scrap and brings the overall quality of the product
closer to the nominal specifications intended by the designer.
8. Process control and The individual process times can be reduced and product quality
optimization can be improved.
9. Plant operations control Control at the plant level.
It attempts to manage and coordinate the aggregate operations in
the plant more efficiently
10. Computer-integrated Integrate the factory operations and business functions.
manufacturing (CIM)

40
Exercise

41
(*) LEVELS OF AUTOMATION

Figure: Five levels of automation

and control in manufacturing

42
 * LEVELS OF AUTOMATION (Continued……..)
1. Device level
 This is the lowest level in the automation hierarchy.
 It includes the actuators, sensors, and other hardware components that comprise the machine level.
 The devices are combined into the individual control loops of the machine,
 Example: The feedback control loop for one axis of a CNC machine or one joint of an industrial robot.
2. Machine level
 Hardware at the device level is assembled into individual machines.
 Examples include CNC machine tools and similar production equipment, industrial robots, powered
conveyors, and automated guided vehicles.
 Control functions at this level include performing the sequence of steps in the program of instructions
in the correct order and making sure that each step is properly executed.
3. Cell or system level
 This is the manufacturing cell or system level, which operates under instructions from the plant level.
 A manufacturing cell or system is a group of machines or workstations connected and supported by a
material handling system, computer, and other equipment appropriate to the manufacturing process.
 Production lines are included in this level.
 Functions include part dispatching and machine loading, coordination among machines and material
handling system, and collecting and evaluating inspection data.

43
 * LEVELS OF AUTOMATION (Continued……..)

4. Plant level
This is the factory or production systems level.
It receives instructions from the corporate information system and translates them into operational
plans for production.
Likely functions include order processing, process planning, inventory control, purchasing, material
requirements planning, shop floor control, and quality control.

5. Enterprise level
This is the highest level, consisting of the corporate information system.
It is concerned with all of the functions necessary to manage the company: marketing and sales,
accounting, design, research, aggregate planning, and master production scheduling.
The corporate information system is usually managed using Enterprise Resource Planning

44
Types of Production Systems

45
 Continuous VS Batch Production
Continuous production
Occurs when the production equipment is used exclusively for the given product, and the output of the product is
uninterrupted.
In the process industries, continuous production means that the process is carried out on a continuous stream of material,
with no interruptions in the output flow, as suggested by the material being processed is likely to be in the form of a liquid,
gas, powder, or similar physical state.
In the discrete manufacturing industries, continuous production means 100% dedication of the production equipment to
the part or product, with no breaks for product changeovers.
The individual units of production are identifiable.

Batch production
Occurs when the materials are processed in finite amounts or quantities.
The finite amount or quantity of material is called a batch in both the process and discrete manufacturing industries.
Batch production is discontinuous because there are interruptions in production between batches.
Reasons for using batch production include,
1.differences in work units between batches necessitate changes in methods, tooling, and equipment to accommodate the
part differences;
2.the capacity of the equipment limits the amount or quantity of material that can be processed at one time; and
3.the production rate of the equipment is greater than the demand rate for the parts or products, and it therefore makes
46
sense to share the equipment among multiple parts or products.
 Various types of plant layout

a) Fixed position layout

b) Process layout

47
 Various types of plant layout (Continued….)

(c) Cellular Layout

(d) Product Layout

48
Relationship between types of production system and layouts

49
Production Performance Metrics
1. Cycle Time and Production Rate

2. Production Capacity and Utilization

3. Manufacturing Lead Time and Work-in-Process

 Successful manufacturing companies use metrics to manage their operations.

 Quantitative metrics allow a company to estimate part and product costs, track
performance in successive periods (e.g., months and years), identify problems with
performance, and compare alternative method.

50
 Cycle Time (Tc)
 For a unit operation, the cycle time Tc is the time that one work unit spends being processed or

assembled.
 It is the time interval between when one work unit begins processing (or assembly) and when
the next unit begins.
 Tc is the time an individual part spends at the machine, but not all of this is processing time.
 In a typical processing operation, such as machining, T c consists of

(1) actual processing time,

(2) work part handling time, and
(3) tool handling time per workpiece.
Cycle Time, Tc (min/pc) is given by the equation:

To = time of the actual processing or assembly operation (min/pc)

Th = handling time (min/pc)
Tt = average tool handling time (min/pc)
51
 Production Rate (RP)
 The production rate for a unit production operation is usually expressed as an hourly rate, that is, work units
completed per hour (pc/hr).

Figure: Types of production operations:

(a)job shop with production quantity Q = 1,
(b)sequential batch production
(c)simultaneous batch production,
(d)quantity mass production, and
(e)flow-line mass production.

52
(a) Production Rate (RP) – For job shop with production quantity Q = 1

 In job shop production, quantities are low (1 <Q>100).

 At the extreme low end of the range, when quantity Q = 1, the production time per work unit or

average production time (Tp) is the sum of setup and cycle times.

Tp = average production time (min/pc)

Tsu = setup time to prepare the machine to produce the part (min/pc)
Tc = cycle time (min/pc)
 The production rate is given by,

Rp = hourly production rate (pc/hr)

 (b) Production Rate (RP) – For sequential batch production

 Sequential batch production involves work units that are processed one
at a time, referred to as sequential batch processing.
 Examples: machining, sheet metal stamping, and plastic injection
molding.

 In sequential batch processing, the time to process one batch consisting of Q work units (T b) is the

sum of the setup time and processing time, where the processing time is the batch quantity multiplied by
the cycle time. Tb = batch processing time (min/batch)
Tsu = setup time to prepare the machine for the batch
(min/batch)
Q = batch quantity (pc/batch)
Tc = cycle time per work unit (min/cycle)
Note: If one work unit is completed each cycle, then Tc has units of (min/pc). If more than one part is produced
each cycle, then Equation must be adjusted accordingly.
An example of this situation is when the mold in a plastic injection molding operation contains two cavities, so
that two moldings are produced each cycle.
54
(c) Production Rate (RP) – For simultaneous batch production

 Simultaneous batch production involves processing of all work units in

the batch together.
 Examples include most heat-treating and electroplating operations, in
which all of the parts in the batch are processed at once.

 In simultaneous batch processing, the time to process a batch consisting of Q work units (T b)

is the sum of the setup time and processing time, where the processing time is the time to
simultaneously process all of the parts in the batch.

Tb = batch processing time, (min/batch)

Tsu = setup time (min/batch)

Tc = cycle time per batch (min/cycle)

55
 Production Rate (RP) for Batch
Production
Tp = average production time (min/pc)
Average production time,
Tb = batch processing time, (min/batch)
Q = Quantity (pc)

Production rate Rp = hourly production rate (pc/hr)

56
(d) Production Rate (RP) – For quantity-type mass production
 For quantity-type mass production, the production rate equals the cycle rate of the
machine (reciprocal of operation cycle time) after production is underway and the effects of
setup time become insignificant.
 That is, as Q becomes very large,

i)

Therefore, Average production time

ii) Production Rate,

Where
Rp = Production Rate (pc/hr)
Rc = operation cycle rate of the machine, (pc/hr)
Tc = operation cycle time, (min/pc).
57
(e) Production Rate (RP) – For flow-line mass production

 For flow-line mass production, the production rate approximates the cycle rate of the production
line by neglecting setup time.
 However, the operation of production lines is complicated by the interdependence of the
workstations on the line.
 One complication is that it is usually impossible to divide the total work equally among all of the
workstations on the line; therefore, one station ends up with the longest operation time, and this
station sets the pace for the entire line.
 The term bottleneck station is used to refer to this station.

58
(e) Production Rate (RP) – For flow-line mass production (Continued…..)

 The cycle time is the time to move parts from one station to the next at the end of each operation.
 In many production lines, all work units on the line are moved synchronously, each to its
respective next station.
 Taking these factors into account, the cycle time of a production line is the longest processing (or
assembly) time plus the time to transfer work units between stations.

Average production time = Cycle Time =

Production Rate,

Tc = cycle time of the production line, min/cycle;

Max To = the operation time at the bottleneck station (the maximum of the operation times for all stations
on the line, min/cycle)
Tr = time to transfer work units between stations each cycle (min/cycle)
Rc = theoretical or ideal production rate (cycle rate to be more precise, cycles/hr)
59
 Numerical Problem 7: A batch of parts is produced on a semiautomated production machine. Batch size
is 250 units. Setup requires 50 min. A worker loads and unloads the machine each cycle, which takes 0.40
min. Machine processing time is 2.50 min/cycle, and tool handling time is negligible. One part is produced
each cycle.
Determine (a) average cycle time, (b) time to complete the batch, and (c) average production rate.
Solution:

(a) Average cycle time

Given, To= 2.50 min, Th= 0.40 min, and Tt= 0

Average Cycle time, Tc= 0.40 + 2.50 =2.90 min

(b) Time to complete the batch

Given, Batch size=Q= 50 units, Setup Time, TSU= 50 min.

Batch Processing time, Tb= 50 + 250(2.90) =775 min=12.92 hr

60
Numerical Problem 7: (Continued….)

(c) Average production rate.

Average production time, = Tp= 775/250 = 3.1 min/pc

Average Production rate = RP = 60/3.1 =19.35 pc/hr

61
Assignment Question
Numerical Problem 8: A batch production operation has a machine setup time of 4.0 hr and a
processing time of 1.50 min per cycle. Three parts are produced each cycle. No tool handling time is
included in the cycle. Part handling time each cycle is 30 sec. It consists of the worker obtaining three
starting work units from a parts tray, loading them into the machine, and then after processing,
unloading the completed units and placing them into the same tray. Each tray holds 27 work units.
When all of the starting work units have been replaced with completed units, the tray of completed
parts is moved aside and a new tray of starting parts is moved into position at the machine. This
irregular work element takes 4.0 min. Batch quantity is 2,700 units.
Determine (a) average cycle time, (b) time to complete the batch, and (c) average production rate.

62
 Production Capacity and Utilization
 It is defined as the maximum rate of output that a production facility (or production line, or
group of machines) is able to produce under a given set of assumed operating conditions.
 The production facility usually refers to a plant or factory, and so the term plant capacity is often
used for this measure.
 The number of hours of plant operation per week is a critical issue in defining plant capacity.
 For continuous chemical production in which the reactions occur at elevated temperatures, the
plant is usually operated 24 hours per day, seven days per week (168 hours per week).
 On the other hand, many discrete product plants operate one shift per day, five days per week.
 For an automobile final assembly plant, capacity is typically defined as one or two shifts,
depending on the demand for the cars made in the plant.
 In situations when demand is very high, three production shifts may be used.
 A trend in manufacturing is to define plant capacity for the full 7-day week, 24 hours per day.
 This is the maximum time available, and if the plant operates fewer hours, then it is operating at
less than its full capacity.
63
 Production Capacity (PC)
 Let PC = the production capacity of a given facility, where the measure of capacity is the
number of units produced per time period (e.g., week, month, year).
 The simplest case is where there are ‘n’ production machines in the plant and they all produce
the same part or product, which implies quantity type mass production.
 Each machine is capable of producing at the same rate of Rp units per hour.
 Each machine operates for the number of hours in the period.
 These parameters can be combined to calculate the weekly production capacity of the facility,
Plant capacity for facility in which parts are made in one operation (no = 1):

PC = production capacity, pc/period;

n = number of machines; and
Hpc = the number of hours in the period being used to measure production capacity (or plant capacity)
64
Production Capacity (PC) (Continued…….)

“Max rate of output that a production facility is able to produce under a given set of
assumed operating conditions”

Operating conditions:
• Number of shifts per day
• Number of days per week
• Employment levels

A work center is a manufacturing system in the plant typically consisting of one worker
and one machine.

9
Production Capacity (PC) (Continued…….)

PC = n Sw Hsh Rp
where
PC = weekly plant capacity (units/wk)
n = number of work centers working in parallel
Sw = number of shifts per week

Hsh = hr/shift

Rp = hourly production rate of each work center (output units/hr) 66

Numerical Problem 9: The automatic lathe department has five machines, all devoted to the production of the
same product. The machines operate two 8-hr shifts, 5 days/week, 50 weeks/year. Production rate of each
machine is 15 unit/hr. Determine the weekly production capacity of the automatic lathe department.

Solution

= n Sw Hsh Rp

n = 5, Sw = 8 hr shift/day, Hsh = 5 days/week

Hpc = Sw Hsh = 2 x 8 hr shift/day x 5 days/week = 80 hrs

Rp =15 units/hr

PC = 5 x 80 x 15 = 6000 pc/week

67
Production Capacity (PC) (Continued…….)

Plant capacity for facility in which parts require multiple operations (no > 1):
1):
nSw Hsh Rp
PCw = no
PCw =

where no = number of operations in the routing

where no = number of operations in the routing

11
Production Capacity (PC), In cases in which different machines produce different parts at different
production rates, the following equation applies for quantity-type mass production:

Where
n = number of machines in the plant, and
Rpi = hourly production rate of machine i, and all machines are operating full time during the
entire period defined by Hpc

69
 Adjusting Plant Capacity
For Short Term

 Increase or decrease the number of machines n in the plant.

It is easier to remove machines from operation than to add machines if adding them means
purchasing equipment that may require long lead times to procure. Adding workers in the short
term may be easier than adding equipment.
 Increase or decrease the number of shifts per week.
For example, Saturday shifts might be authorized to temporarily increase capacity, or the plant
might operate two shifts per day instead of one.
 Increase or decrease the number of hours worked per shift.
For example, overtime on each regular shift might be authorized to increase capacity.
Adjusting Plant Capacity (Continued…)

For Intermediate and Longer Terms

 Increase the number of machines n in the shop.

This might be done by using equipment that was formerly not in use, acquiring new machines,
and hiring new workers.
Increase the production rate Rp by making improvements in methods and/or

processing technology.
Reduce the number of operations no in the operation sequence of parts by using
combined operations, simultaneous operations, and/or integration of operations

71
Adjusting Plant Capacity (Continued…)

Other adjustments that can be considered to affect plant capacity in the short term or long term include
the following:
Identify the bottleneck operations in the plant and somehow increase the output rates of these
operations, using the USA Principle and other approaches outlined.
Stockpile inventory to maintain level employment during slow periods, trusting (and betting) that the
goods can later be sold when demand increases.
Backlogging orders, which means delaying deliveries to customers during busy periods to avoid
temporary and potentially costly increases in production capacity.
Subcontracting work to outside vendors during busy periods or taking in extra work from other firms
during slack periods.

72
 Utilization (U)
 Utilization is the proportion of time that a productive resource (e.g., a production machine) is used
relative to the time available under the definition of plant capacity.

where
Ui = utilization of machine i,

fij = the fraction of time during the available hours that machine i is processing part style j.
Overall utilization for the plant (U) is determined by averaging the Ui values over the number of machines (n):

73
Average hourly production output for the plant

where,
Rpph = average hourly plant production rate, (pc/hr);
Rpij = production rate of machine i when processing part j, (pc/hr);
noj = the number of operations required to produce part j, and
fij is defined earlier.

where
Tpij = average production time for part j on machine i, (min/pc);
Tsuij = setup time for part j on machine i (min/batch); and
Qj = batch quantity of part j (pc/batch)
fij = the fraction of time during the available hours that machine i is processing part style j
 Plant Output for a given period (week, month, year etc…)
 The plant output for a given period of interest (e.g., week, month, year) can be determined
based on the average hourly production rate.

Weekly plant output

Where
Rppw = weekly plant production rate for the plant (pc/wk);
Rpph = average hourly production rate for the plant (pc/hr)
Hpw = number of hours in the week

Monthly plant output

Yearly plant output

75
 Utilization and Availability
Q
Also, Utilization: U =
PC
where
Q = quantity actually produced
PC = plant capacity

Utilization can be assessed for an entire plant, a single machine in the plant or any other
productive resource.

13
Equipment Reliability (factor which affects production rate)
 Lost production time due to equipment reliability problems reduces the production rates determined
by the previous equations.
 The most useful measure of reliability is availability, defined as the uptime proportion of the
equipment; that is, the proportion of time that the equipment is capable of operating (not broken
down) relative to the scheduled hours of production.
 The measure is especially appropriate for automated production equipment.

Figure: Time scale showing MTBF and MTTR used to define availability A
77
Availability (A)

 As depicted in Figure , MTBF is the average length of time the piece of equipment runs between
breakdowns, and MTTR is the average time required to service the equipment and put it back into
operation when a breakdown occurs.
 In equation form,

A = availability (proportion)
MTBF = mean time between failures, (hr)
MTTR = mean time to repair (hr)

 The mean time to repair may include waiting time of the broken-down equipment before repairs begin.
Availability is typically expressed as percentage.

 When a piece of equipment is brand new (and being debugged), and later when it begins to age, its
availability tends to be lower.

78
 Average production rate taking
Availability into account

 Taking availability into account, the actual average production rate of the equipment is its availability

multiplied by Rp from any of the preceding production rate equations

Average production rate = ARp

based on the assumption that setup time is also affected by the availability.

A= Availability

 The actual average production rate Rp is reduced to a value that is often substantially below the ideal R c.

79
Numerical Problem 10: Average setup time on a certain production machine is 6.0 hr. Average
batch size is 40 parts, and average operation cycle time is 2.5 min. The reliability of this machine is
characterized by mean time between failures of 40 hr and a mean time to repair of 35 min.
(a)If availability is ignored, what is the average hourly production rate of the machine?
(b)Taking into account the availability of the machine, determine its average hourly production rate.
(c)Suppose that availability only applied during the actual run time of the machine and not the setup
time. Determine the average hourly production rate of the machine under this scenario.

Average production rate = ARp

80
 Workload (WL)
 During one week, output might be higher than average simply because the production rates of
the parts produced that week were high.
 To deal with this possible inconsistency, plant capacity is sometimes reported as the workload
corresponding to the output produced during the period.
 Workload is defined as the total hours required to produce a given number of units during a
given week or other period of interest.

where
WL = workload (hr);
Qij = number of work units produced of part style j on machine i during the period of interest;

Tpij = average production time of part style j on machine i. 81

Manufacturing Lead Time (MLT)
 MLT is defined as the total time required to process a given part or product through the plant,

including any time due to delays, parts being moved between operations, time spent in queues,

and so on.
 Why do these nonoperation times occur?
 Why not just take the parts straightaway from one operation to the next without these delays?

82
Non-operation time
1. Time spent transporting batches of parts between operations,

2. Build-up of queues of parts waiting before each operation,

3. Build-up of queues of parts after each operation waiting to be transported to the next
operation,

4. Less than optimal scheduling of batches,

5. Part inspections before and/or after unit operations,

6. Equipment breakdowns resulting in lost production time, and

7. Workload imbalances among the machines that perform the operations required for a given
part or product style, with some machines being 100% utilized while others spend much of the
time waiting for work.
83
Manufacturing Lead Time (MLT)-Mathematical Model
MLT is defined as the total time required to process a given part or product through the plant, including
any time due to delays, parts being moved between operations, time spent in queues, and so on. Let T c = the

operation cycle time at a given machine, Tno = the nonoperation time associated with each operation, T su =

Set-up time, number of separate operations (machines) through which the work unit must be routed = n o.
In batch production, there are Q work units in the batch,
Therefore Manufacturing Lead Time is given by,

Where,
MLTj = manufacturing lead time for a batch of part or product j, (min);
Tsuij = setup time for operation i on part or product j, (min/batch);
Qj = quantity of part or product j in the batch being processed, (pc);
Tcij = cycle time for operation i on part or product j, (min/pc);
Tnoij = nonoperation time associated with operation i, (min); and
84
i indicates the operation sequence in the processing, i = 1, 2, c, n oj
 Average manufacturing lead time over the
number of batches

where
MLT = average manufacturing lead time, min, for the nb batches (parts or products) over which
the averaging procedure is carried out, and
MLTj = lead time for batch j

In the extreme case in which all of the parts or products are included in the averaging
procedure, nb = P,

where P = the number of different part or product styles made by the factory.
85
 Manufacturing Lead Time (MLT)-Simplified Equation

To simplify matters and enhance conceptualization of this aspect of factory operations, properly
weighted average values of batch quantity, number of operations per batch, setup time, operation
cycle time, and nonoperation time can be used for the nb batches being considered.

For Batch
Production

Where
MLT = average manufacturing lead time for all parts or products in the plant (min)
Tsu = average Set-up time (min)

Tc = average operation cycle time at a given machine (min/batch),

Tno = average nonoperation time associated with each operation,

no = average number of separate operations (machines) through which the work unit must be routed, and

Q = Quantity or work units in the batch or batch quantity (pc/batch) 86

MLT for Job-Shop Production (Q=1)

MLT for Quantity Mass Production

A large number of units (Q is very large) are made on a single machine (n0=1) and Tsu=> 0

MLT for Flow-Line Mass Production

The number of stations on the line (n) is equal to the number of operations n 0 (n = n0)

87
Numerical Problem 11: A certain part is produced in batch sizes of 100 units. The batches must be routed
through five operations to complete the processing of the parts. Average setup time is 3.0 hr/batch, and
average operation time is 6.0 min/pc. Average nonoperation time is 7.5 hr for each operation. Determine the
manufacturing lead time to complete one batch, assuming the plant runs 8 hr/ day, 5 days/wk.

Given:
Q = 100 units
no = 5
Tsu = 3.0 hr
To = Tc= 6 min/pc (Th & Tt may be assumed as zero)
Tno = 7.5 hr

At 8 hr/day, this amounts to 102.5/8 = 12.81 days

88
Numerical Problem 12: A certain part is routed through six machines in a batch production plant. The
setup and operation times for each machine are given in the table below. The batch size is 100 and the
average nonoperation time per machine is 12 hours.
Determine (a) manufacturing lead time and (b) production rate for operation 3.

Tsu = 4 hr T0 = Tc = 4.5 min

Given: Q =100, Tno= 12 hr, n0 = 6

89
Solution Given: Q =100, Tno= 12 hr, no= 6

i)
MLT = 6( 4 x 60 + 100 x 4.5 + 12 x 60) =
8460 min = 141 hr

ii) Production Rate for Operation -3

For Operation 3, Tsu = 8 hr, T0 = Tc = 10 min

= 8 x 60 + 100 x 10 = 1480 min

= 1480/100 = 14.8 min

= 60/ 14.8 = 4.05 hr

90
Numerical Problem 13: Suppose the part in the Numerical Problem 15 is made in very large quantities
on a production line in which an automated work handling system is used to transfer parts between
machines. Transfer time between stations = 15 s. The total time required to set up the entire line is 150
hours. Assume that the operation times at the individual machines remain the same.
Determine (a) manufacturing lead time for a part coming off the line, (b) production rate for operation 3,
(c) theoretical production rate for the entire production line?

Given, no = 6, Tr = 15 s, Tno = 150 hours

MLT for Flow-Line Mass Production

Max To = 10 min 91
Solution:
Given, no = 6, Max To = 10 min, Tr = 15 s = 15/60 = 0.25 min, Tno = 150 hours

(a) MLT for first part coming off the line

(b) Production rate for operation 3 (Max To = 10 min, Tr = 15 s)

(c) Theoretical production rate for the entire production line

Ans:
Theoretical production rate for line = 5.8536 pc/hr since station 3 is the bottleneck station on the line.

92
 Work-in-Process (WIP)
 A plant’s work-in-process (WIP, also known as work-inprogress) is the quantity of parts or
products currently located in the factory that either are being processed or are between
processing operations.
 WIP is inventory that is in the state of being transformed from raw material to finished part or
product.

 Effects of part queues, equipment availability, and other delays are accounted for in the
nonoperation time, which is a component of MLT.
 Work-in-process represents an investment by the firm, but one that cannot be turned into
revenue until all processing has been completed. Many manufacturing companies sustain major
costs because work remains in-process in the factory too long. 93
Numerical Problem 14:
A certain job shop specializes in one-of-a-kind orders dealing with parts of medium-to-high complexity. A
typical part is processed sequentially through ten machines in batch sizes of one. The shop contains a total of
eight conventional machine tools and operates 35 hours per week of production time. The machine tools are
interchangeable in the sense that they can be setup for any operation required on any of the parts. Average time
values on the part are: machining time per machine = 0.5 hour, work handling time per machine = 0.3 hour, tool
change time per machine = 0.2 hour, setup time per machine = 6 hours and nonoperational time per machine =
12 hours. A new programmable machine has been purchased by the shop that is capable of performing all ten
operations in a single setup. The programming of the machine for this part will require 20 hours; however, the
programming can be down off-line, without tying up the machine. The setup time will be 10 hours. The total
machining time will be reduced to 80% of its previous value due to advanced tool control algorithms; the work
handling time will be the same as for one machine; and the total tool change time will be reduced by 50%
because it will be accomplished automatically under program control. For the one machine, nonoperational time
is expected to be 12 hours.
a) Determine the manufacturing lead time for the traditional method and for the new method.
b) Compute the plant capacity for the following alternatives:
i) A job shop containing the eight traditional machines
ii) a job shop containing two of the new programmable machines
c) WIP for both alternatives
d) How can plant capacity be increased or decreased in a short term?
94
Solution:
a) Determine the manufacturing lead time for the traditional method and for the new method.

Manufacturing lead time (MLT) for the traditional method (Old machine)

Given no= 10, Q =1, To = 0.5 hr, Th =0.3 hr, Tt = 0.2 hr, Tsu = 6 hrs, Tno = 12 hrs

= 0.5 + 0.3 + 0.2 = 1 hr

= 10(6 + 1x1 + 12) = 190 hr

Manufacturing lead time (MLT) for the new method (new programmable machine)
Given no= 1, Q =1, Tsu = 10 hrs, Tno = 12 hrs
To = 80% of (0.5 hr x 10) = 0.8 x 5 = 4 hr
Th= 0.3 hr
Tt = 50% of (0.2 hr x 10) = 1 hr
= 4 + 0.3 + 1 = 5.3 hr

= 1(10 + 1x5.3 + 12) = 27.3 hr

95
 nSw Hsh Rp
no

= 0.5 + 0.3 + 0.2 = 1 hr

= 6 + 1= 7 hr= 7 x 60 min

Given Hours per week = 35 hr = SwHsh

nSw Hsh Rp
no
96
 To = 80% of (0.5 hr x 10) = 0.8 x 5 = 4 hr
Th= 0.3 hr
Tt = 50% of (0.2 hr x 10) = 1 hr
= 4 + 0.3 + 1 = 5.3 hr

= 10 + 5.3 = 15.3 hr= 15.3 x 60 min

nSw Hsh Rp
no
97
 c) How can plant capacity be increased or decreased in a short term?

Assume A =100 % and U = 100 % (i.e. A=1, U =1)

For Traditional Method: (PC = 4 orders/week, MLT = 190 hrs, Hpc = 35 hr/week)

= 21.7 orders

For New Method: (PC = 4.575 orders/week, MLT = 27.3 hrs, Hpc = 35 hr/week)

= 3.57 orders

98
Numerical Problem 15: The average part produced in a certain batch manufacturing plant must be
processed sequentially through six machines on average. Twenty (20) new batches of parts are launched
each week. Average operation time = 6 min., average setup time = 5 hours, average batch size = 25 parts, and
average non-operation time per batch = 10 hr/machine. There are 18 machines in the plant working in
parallel. Each of the machines can be set up for any type of job processed in the plant. The plant operates an
average of 70 production hours per week. Scrap rate is negligible.
Determine
a) Manufacturing lead time for an average part
b) Plant capacity
c) Plant utilization.
d) How would you expect the non-operation time to be affected by the plant utilization?

99
Solution:
Given: no= 6, To = 6 min, Tsu = 5 hr, Q = 25, Tno = 10 hr, n =18, Hpc = 70 hr/week,

a) Manufacturing lead time for an average part

= 6 + 0 + 0 = 6 min

6(5 + 25 x 0.1 + 10) = 105 hr

b) Plant capacity
nSw Hsh Rp
nSw Hsh Rp
no
no

100
 = 5+ 25 x 0.1 = 7.5 hr

nSw Hsh Rp
no
c) Plant utilization

PC = 700 pc/week
Q = 25 (average batch size)
Q per week = 25 x 20 batches = 500 101
Numerical Problem 16: A factory produces cardboard boxes. The production sequence consists of three
operations: (1) cutting, (2) indenting, and (3) printing. There are three machines in the factory, one for each
operation. The machines are 100% reliable and operate as follows when operating at 100% utilization: (1) In
cutting, large rolls of cardboard are fed into the cutting machine and cut into blanks. Each large roll contains
enough material for 4,000 blanks. Production cycle time = 0.03 min per blank during a production run, but it takes
35 min to change rolls between runs. (2) In indenting, indentation lines are pressed into the blanks to allow the
blanks to later be bent into boxes. The blanks from the previous cutting operation are divided and consolidated
into batches whose starting quantity = 2,000 blanks. Indenting is performed at 4.5 min per 100 blanks. Time to
change dies on the indentation machine = 30 min. (3) In printing, the indented blanks are printed with labels for a
particular customer. The blanks from the previous indenting operation are divided and consolidated into batches
whose starting quantity = 1,000 blanks. Printing cycle rate = 30 blanks per min. Between batches, changeover of
the printing plates is required, which takes 20 min. In-process inventory is allowed to build up between
machines 1 and 2, and between machines 2 and 3, so that the machines can operate independently as
much as possible. Determine the maximum possible output of this factory during a 40-hr week, in
completed blanks per week (completed blanks have been cut, indented, and printed)? Assume steady-
state operation, not startup. 102
Solution: Evaluate the Rate of Production for each operation, identify the bottleneck operation and evaluate the
theoretical Maximum Possible Output
Operation 1: Cutting
Given, Tsu = 35 min, Tc = 0.03 min/pc, Q =4000 blanks

= 35+ 4000 x 0.03 = 155 min

Operation 2: Indenting
Given, Tsu = 30 min, Tc = 4.5 min/100pc = 0.045 min, Q =2000 blanks

= 30+ 2000 x 0.045 = 120 min

103
Operation 3: Printing
Given, Tsu = 20 min, Tc = 30 blanks per min = 1/30 = 0.033 min, Q =1000 blanks

= 20+ 1000 x 0.033 = 53.33 min

Bottleneck Process is Operation 2 (Since Tp =0.06 min/pc, Rp =1000 pc/hr)

Given, Hpc =40 hr/week

Therefore
Weekly Output = PC = nHpcRp = 1 x 40 x 1000 = 40000 blanks/week

104
 AUTOMATED FLOW LINES
Content: Automated flow lines - methods of work transport - automated flow lines with
and without storage buffers.
Symbols used in
Production Lines
Detroit type automation: Automated flow lines
 The origin of the mechanized production lines or flow lines can be traced in the works of the Henry
Ford, Chrysler in the city of USA, Detroit.
 Automobile industries of Ford, Chrysler are located in Detroit city, that is why this kind of technique
used in the automation is called the Detroit type automation.

Figure: General configuration of an automated production line.

Key: Proc = processing operation, Aut = automated workstation.
 Automated flow lines (Automated Production Lines) continued……….

 An automated production line consists of multiple workstations that are automated and linked together
by a work handling system that transfers parts from one station to the next
 A raw work part enters one end of the line, and the processing steps are performed sequentially as the
part progresses forward (from left to right in the figure).
 The line may include inspection stations to perform intermediate quality checks. Also, manual stations
may be located along the line to perform certain operations that are difficult or uneconomical to
automate.
 Each station performs a different operation, so all operations must be performed to complete each work
unit. Multiple parts are processed simultaneously on the line, one part at each station.
 In the simplest form of production line, the number of parts on the line at any moment is equal to the
number of workstations, as in the figure.
 In more complicated lines, provision is made for temporary parts storage between stations, in which
case there are more parts than stations.
 An automated production line operates in cycles, each cycle consists of processing time plus the time to
transfer parts to the next station. The slowest workstation sets the pace of the line (bottleneck station)
Automated flow lines (Automated Production Lines) continued……….
 Automated production lines are examples of fixed automation, and it is generally difficult to alter the
sequence and content of the processing operations once the line is built.
Their application is therefore appropriate only under the following conditions:
 High demand, requiring high production quantities
 Stable product design, because frequent design changes are difficult to accommodate on an automated
production line
 Long product life, at least several years in most cases
 Multiple operations performed on the product during its manufacture.

Advantages of automated production lines

 Low amount of direct labor
 Low product cost, because the cost of fixed equipment is spread over many units
 High production rate
 Minimal work-in-progress and manufacturing lead time
 Minimal use of factory floor space.
Automated flow lines (Automated Production Lines) continued……….

 The disadvantage of an automated production line is that it is difficult to reuse the equipment
when demand for the product decreases or when the user company has overestimated the demand
and the line is underutilized.
 Accordingly, many automated lines today are designed with flexible workstations, such as CNC
(computer numerical control) machining centers, so that the stations can be used in future
automated lines
Single Station Machines Multi Station Transfer Line
 Work Part Transport
 The work part transport system moves parts between stations on the line.

Methods of Work Part Transport

I. Continuous transport system

II. Synchronous transport systems
III. Asynchronous transport system
 Methods of Work Transport
I. Continuous transport system
A continuous transport system uses a continuously moving conveyor that operates at constant
velocity, as in Figure.
This method is common on manual assembly lines.
The conveyor usually runs the entire length of the line. However, if the line is very long, such as the
case of an automobile final assembly plant, it is divided into segments with a separate conveyor for
each segment.

Continuous transport
Overhead trolley conveyor
Belt conveyor
Roller conveyor
Drag chain conveyor

Key: v = velocity, vc = constant velocity of continuous transport conveyor,

x = distance in conveyor direction, Sta = workstation, i = workstation identifier
Types of Conveyors:
(a)Roller conveyor,
(b)skate-wheel conveyor,
(c)belt (flat) conveyor (support frame not shown),
(d)in-floor towline conveyor, and
(e)overhead trolley conveyor
Continuous transport can be implemented in two ways:
(1) work units are fixed to the conveyor, and
In this case, the product is large and heavy (e.g., automobile, washing machine) and cannot be removed from the
conveyor.
The worker must therefore walk along with the product at the speed of the conveyor in order to accomplish the assigned
task.

(2) work units are removable from the conveyor.

In the case where work units are small and lightweight, they can be removed from the conveyor for the physical
convenience of the operator at each station.
Another convenience for the worker is that the assigned task at the station does not need to be completed within a fixed
cycle time.
Each worker has flexibility to deal with technical problems that may be encountered with a particular work unit.
However, on average, each worker must maintain a production rate equal to that of the rest of the line.
Otherwise, the line produces incomplete units, which occurs when parts that were supposed to be added at a station are
not added because the worker ran out of time.
 II. Synchronous transport systems
 In synchronous transport systems, all work units are moved simultaneously between stations with a
quick, discontinuous motion, and then positioned at their respective stations.
 As shown in figure, this type of system is also known as intermittent transport, which describes
the motion experienced by the work units.
 Synchronous transport is not common for manual lines, due to the requirement that the task must
be completed within a certain time limit.
 This can cause undue stress on the assembly workers and result in incomplete products.
 Despite its disadvantages for manual assembly lines, synchronous transport is often ideal for
automated production lines, in which mechanized workstations operate on a constant cycle time.

Synchronous transport
Walking beam transport equipment
Rotary indexing mechanisms

Key: v = velocity, x = distance in conveyor direction, Sta = workstation, i = workstation identifier

(*) Walking beam transport equipment
Operation of walking-beam transfer system:
(1)work parts at station positions on fixed station beam,
(2)transfer beam is raised to lift work parts from nests,
(3)elevated transfer beam moves parts to next station
positions, and
(4)transfer beam lowers to drop work parts into nests
at new station positions. Transfer beam then retracts to
original position shown in (1).
(*) Rotary indexing machine (dial-indexing machine)

Key: Proc = processing operation, Aut = automated workstation

Chain or steel belt driven conveyor

III. Asynchronous transport system (Power and Free System)
 In asynchronous transport system, a work unit leaves a given station when the assigned task has been
completed and the worker releases the unit.
 Work units move independently, rather than synchronously.
 At any moment, some units are moving between workstations while others are positioned at stations, as
in Figure.
 With asynchronous transport systems, small queues of work units are permitted to form in front of each
station.
 This system tends to be forgiving of variations in worker task times.

Asynchronous transport
Power-and-free overhead conveyor
Cart-on-track conveyor
Powered roller conveyors
Automated guided vehicle system
Monorail systems
Chain-driven or belt-driven systems
Key: v = velocity, x = distance in conveyor direction, Sta = workstation, i = workstation identifier
Three types of automated guided vehicles:
(a)driverless automated guided train,
(b)AGV pallet truck, and
(c)unit load carrier
 Methods of Work Transport (continued….)
 Transport mechanisms used on automated production lines are usually either synchronous or
asynchronous but rarely continuous.
 Synchronous transport has been the traditional means of moving parts in a transfer line.
 However, asynchronous transport provides certain advantages over synchronous transport:
(1) they are more flexible,
(2) they permit queues of parts to form between workstations to act as storage buffers and
(3) it is easier to rearrange or expand the production line.
 These advantages come at a higher first cost.
 Continuous work transport systems, although widely used on manual assembly lines, are
uncommon on automated lines due to the difficulty in providing accurate registration between the
station work heads and the continuously moving parts.
 Methods of Work Transport (continued….)
 Depending on the geometry of the work part to be processed, the line may utilize pallet fixtures for part
handling.
 A pallet fixture is a work-holding device that is designed to
(1) fixture the part in a precise location relative to its base and
(2) be moved, located, and accurately clamped in position at successive workstations by the transfer system.
 With the parts accurately located on the pallet fixture, and the pallet accurately registered at a given
workstation, the part itself is accurately positioned relative to the processing operation performed at the
station.
 The location requirement is especially critical in machining operations, where tolerances are typically specified
in hundredths of a millimeter or thousandths of an inch.
 The term palletized transfer line is sometimes used to identify a transfer line that uses pallet fixtures or
similar work-holding devices.
 The alternative method of work part location is to simply index the parts themselves from station to
station. This is called a free transfer line, and it has the obvious benefit that it avoids the cost of the pallet
fixtures.
 However, certain part geometries require the use of pallet fixtures to facilitate handling and ensure accurate
location at a workstation.
 When pallet fixtures are used, a means must be provided to deliver them back to the front of the line for reuse.
 Figure: Palletized Transfer Line
Two machining transfer lines. On the left is a segmented in-line configuration that uses pallet fixtures
to locate the work parts. The return loop brings the pallets back to the front of the line. On the right,
the second transfer line is an in-line configuration. The manual station between the lines is used to
reorient the parts, represented as ovals. Pallet fixtures are represented as rectangles.
Automated Flowline System Configurations

1. In-line
2. Segmented In-line
(a) L-shaped, (b) U-shaped, and (c)
rectangular.
Key: Proc = processing operation, Aut =
automated workstation, Wash = work
carrier washing station
3. Rotary

Key: Proc = processing operation, Aut = automated workstation

 ROTARY TRANSFER MECHANISMS
I. GENEVA MECHANISM

where = angle of rotation of worktable during indexing

(degrees of rotation), and
ns = number of equally spaced slots in the Geneva.
The angle of driver rotation during indexing = 2, and
The angle of driver rotation during which the worktable
experiences dwell time is (360 - 2)
 Geneva mechanisms usually have four, five, six, or eight slots, which establish the maximum
number of workstation positions that can be placed around the periphery of the table.

 If the rotational speed (N in rev per min) of the driver is given, total cycle time (Tc) in min is

 Of the total cycle time, the dwell time, or available service time per cycle (Ts in min) is given
by
  The indexing time (Tr) for Geneva Mechanism is given by

θ: Angle of rotation of the driving wheel required to move the Geneva wheel by one step (or one slot).
•360∘: Total angular rotation of the driving wheel in one complete cycle. The Geneva mechanism
moves the Geneva wheel during the engagement phase when the driver pin rotates and transfers
motion.
•The driver pin rotates through 180∘+θ
•Represents the semicircular motion of the driver pin needed to fully engage and disengage from
the Geneva slot.
•θ Accounts for any additional angular displacement due to the physical dimensions of the Geneva
mechanism, like the spacing and geometry of the slots.
Numerical Problem 17: A rotary worktable is driven by a Geneva mechanism with six slots. The driver rotates
at 30 rev/min. Determine the i) cycle time, ii) available processing time, and iii) the lost time each cycle to index
the table
Given: N= 30 rev per min

i)Cycle Time, Tc = 1/30 = 0.033 min

ii) Available Processing Time Ts

iii) the lost time each cycle to index the table (Indexing Time T r)
 ROTARY TRANSFER MECHANISMS….
II. Rack and pinion

Especially suited to the high-speed operation associated with indexing machines

 ROTARY TRANSFER MECHANISMS….
III. Ratchet and pawl
 A ratchet is a device that allows linear or rotary motion in only one direction, while preventing motion
in the opposite direction.
 Ratchets consist of: a gearwheel and a pivoting spring loaded finger called a pawl that engages the
teeth. Either the teeth, or the pawl, are slanted at an angle, so that when the teeth are moving in one
direction, the pawl slides up and over each tooth in turn, with the spring forcing it back with a 'click'
into the depression before the next tooth.
 When the teeth are moving in the other direction, the angle of the pawl causes it to catch against a
tooth and stop further motion in that direction.
 ROTARY TRANSFER MECHANISMS….

IV. CAM
Reasons for using storage buffers in automated production lines:
To reduce the impact of station breakdowns: Storage buffers between stages on a production line
permit one stage to continue operation while the other stage is down for repairs.
To provide a bank of parts to supply the line: Parts can be collected into a storage unit and
automatically fed to a downstream manufacturing system. This permits untended operation of the
system between refills.
To provide a place to put the output of the line.

To allow for curing time or other process delay. A curing time is required for some processes
such as painting or adhesive application. The storage buffer is designed to provide sufficient time for
curing to occur before supplying the parts to the downstream station.
To smooth cycle time variations.
ANALYSIS OF FLOW LINES
CASE I: Analysis of Automated Flow Lines Without Storage Buffer:
Mathematical Models

Assumptions:
1.The workstations perform processing operations such as
machining, not assembly;
2.Processing times at each station are constant, though not
necessarily equal; and
3.Work part transport is synchronous
Case I: Analysis of Automated Flow Lines Without Storage Buffer: (Continued……)
1. Cycle Time Analysis
 In the operation of an automated production line, parts are introduced into the first workstation and are
processed and transported at regular intervals to succeeding stations.
 This interval defines the ideal cycle time Tc of the production line.

 Tc is the processing time for the slowest station on the line plus the transfer time, that is,
Ideal cycle time (Tc)

where
Tc = ideal cycle time on the line, min;

Tsi = the processing time at station i, min;

Tr = repositioning time, called the transfer time here, min.

Max (Tsi) = the longest service time establishes the pace of the production line.
The remaining stations with shorter service times must wait for the slowest station. Therefore, these other
stations will experience idle time.
Case I: Analysis of Automated Flow Lines Without Storage Buffer: (Continued……)

 In the operation of a transfer line, random breakdowns and planned stoppages cause downtime
on the line.
 Although the breakdowns and line stoppages occur randomly, their frequency can be measured
over the long run.
 When the line stops, it is down a certain amount of time for each downtime occurrence.
 Downtime occurrences cause the actual average production cycle time of the line to be
longer than the ideal cycle time.
 The actual average production time Tp can be formulated as follows:

Where
F = downtime frequency (line stops/cycle)
Td = average downtime per line stop (min)
The downtime Td includes the time for the repair crew to swing
into action, diagnose the cause of the failure, fix it, and restart
the line.
Thus, FTd = downtime averaged on per cycle basis.
Case I: Analysis of Automated Flow Lines Without Storage Buffer: (Continued……)
Common Reasons for Downtime on an Automated Production Line

 Line downtime is usually associated with failures at individual workstations.

 The reasons for downtime listed above represent malfunctions that cause a single station to stop
production.
 Since all workstations on an automated production line with no internal storage are interdependent, the
failure of one station causes the entire line to stop.
 Let pi = probability or frequency of a failure at station i, where i = 1, 2, ……, n, and n = the number of
workstations on the line.
 The frequency of line stops per cycle is obtained by merely summing the frequencies p i over the n
stations, that is,
Case I: Analysis of Automated Flow Lines Without Storage Buffer: (Continued……)

For computation purpose, If all pi are assumed to be equal (For Design Purpose), then

Where
F = expected frequency of line stops per cycle
pi = frequency of station breakdown per cycle at station i, causing a line stop;
n = number of workstations on the line

If all pi are assumed to be equal, then p1 = p2= p3 = p

Case I: Analysis of Automated Flow Lines Without Storage Buffer: (Continued……)
Upper Bound Approach (Frequency of downtime evaluation)
 The upper-bound approach provides an estimate of the upper limit on the frequency on line stops
per cycle.
 Here it is assumed that a breakdown at a station does not cause the part to be removed from that
station.
 In this case it is possible, perhaps likely, that there will be more than one line stop associated with a
particular work part.
 Examples of this situation
o A hydraulic failure at a workstation which prevents the feed mechanism from working.
o Another possibility is that the cutting tool has nearly worn out and needs to be changed.
o Work part is close to being out of tolerance and a tool adjustment is required to correct the
condition.
 With each of these examples, there is no reason for the part to be removed from the transfer
machine.
Case I: Analysis of Automated Flow Lines Without Storage Buffer: (Continued……)
Lower Bound Approach (Frequency of downtime evaluation)
 The lower-bound approach gives an estimate of the lower limit on the expected number of line
stops per cycle.
 In this approach we assume that the station breakdown results in the destruction or damage of
the workpiece.
 For example, a drill or tap breaks off in the part during processing. The broken tool must be
replaced at the workstation and the work part must be removed from the line for subsequent
rework or scrap. Accordingly, the part cannot proceed to the next stations for further processing.
 let p1 be the probability that a part will jam at a particular station i.
 Then, considering a given work part as it proceeds through the line, p1 is the probability that the part will
jam at station 1, and (1- p1) is the probability that the part will not jam at station i and thus be available
for subsequent processing.
 The quantity p2(1- p1) is the probability that this given part will jam at station 2.
 Generalizing the quantity:
Pi(1-Pi-1)(1-Pi-2)………..(1-P2)(1-P1)
 The probability that a given part will pass through all ‘n’ stations without a line stop associated
with its processing is given by

 Therefore, the frequency of line stops per cycle(F) is provided by

 If the probabilities pi that a part will jam at a particular station are all equal, p 1 = p2 . . . = pn = p.

Then, F = expected frequency of line stops per cycle:

Where These Concepts Are Applicable
In a multi-station system like a transfer line, downtime occurs when one or more stations fail. Since the
probabilities of failure at individual stations are small but add up over multiple stations, we need to estimate how
likely the line is to stop.
The upper-bound and lower-bound approaches are two ways to approximate this probability:
1.Upper-Bound Approach: A conservative estimate assuming that every station failure directly results in a line
stop, ignoring the possibility of multiple simultaneous failures.
2.Lower-Bound Approach: A more realistic estimate that accounts for the actual probability of at least one failure,
considering potential overlaps in failures.

Where These Concepts Are Applicable

These concepts are applied in systems where:
Transfer Lines with No Buffers: In automated production lines where workstations are directly linked (e.g., no
intermediate storage), any station failure may stop the entire line.
Example: Automotive assembly lines with multiple robotic workstations.
Serial Systems: In serial processes where the output of one stage is the input for the next, the overall reliability
depends on the weakest stage.
Example: Pharmaceutical production processes with strict quality checks.
Design for Reliability: To predict system downtime and develop strategies to reduce it.
Example: Implementing redundancy or buffers to reduce the likelihood of system-wide downtime.
Maintenance Planning: To estimate the frequency of breakdowns and plan preventive maintenance schedules.
Example: Maintenance scheduling for printing presses in a newspaper production line.
143
Upper-Bound Approach
Assumption:
•Any failure at any station causes a line stop.
•Ignores the fact that failures at different stations
could happen simultaneously.
When Applicable:
Use this approach as a quick, conservative estimate.
Often used in preliminary design phases or when
failure data is incomplete.
Lower-Bound Approach
Assumption:
The line stops only if at least one station fails.
Accounts for the possibility of multiple simultaneous
failures (which reduces the probability of line stops).
When Applicable:
Use this approach for a more accurate and realistic
estimate.
Particularly useful in detailed reliability studies where
precise failure data is available.

144
Practical Applications
1.Transfer Lines in Manufacturing:
1. Without Buffers: Failure at any station stops the entire line (e.g., upper-bound
applies).
2. With Buffers: Allows the system to tolerate some failures (lower-bound
becomes more relevant).
2.Serial Processing in Automation:
1. Example: In a PCB assembly line with no storage buffers, the breakdown of a
soldering station may halt the entire line.
3.System Reliability Design:
1. Helps identify whether to add buffers, increase machine reliability, or schedule
maintenance more effectively.
4.Decision-Making in Automation:
1. Decide whether to invest in redundancy (e.g., adding parallel stations to
mitigate line stops).

145
Numerical Problem 18: In a 10-station transfer line, the probability that a station breakdown will occur for
a given work part is equal to 0.01. This probability is the same for all 10 stations. Determine the frequency of
line stops per cycle on this flow line
i)using the upper-bound approach.
ii)using the lower-bound approach.

Solution: Given- n= 10, p =0.01

i) Frequency of line stops per cycle using the upper-bound approach

= 10 x 0.01 = 0.1

i) Frequency of line stops per cycle using the lower-bound approach

Case I: Analysis of Automated Flow Lines Without Storage Buffer: (Continued……)

2. Performance Measures
One of the important measures of performance on an automated transfer line is production
rate, (reciprocal of Tp)

Actual average production rate (Based on Upper Bound Approach)

where
Rp = actual average production rate (pc/hr) and
Tp = the actual average production time (min or hr).
Case I: Analysis of Automated Flow Lines Without Storage Buffer: (Continued……)
2. Performance Measures (Continued..)
Actual average production rate (Based on Lower Bound Approach)

 With the lower-bound approach, the number of work parts coming off the line will be less than the
number starting.
 If the parts are removed from the line when a breakdown occurs, they are not available to be counted
as part of the output of the line.
 Therefore, the production-rate equation must be amended to reflect this reduction in output.
 Using the lower-bound approach, the production-rate formula becomes

where F not only stands for the frequency of line stops but also the frequency of pars removal. If no
rework is performed, F is the scrap rate. Therefore, the term (1 – F) represents the yield of the transfer
machine.
Case I: Analysis of Automated Flow Lines Without Storage Buffer: (Continued……)

2. Performance Measures (Continued..)

Ideal where
production rate Rc = Ideal production rate (pc/hr) and
Tc = Ideal production time (min or hr).

It is customary to express production rates on automated production lines as hourly rates

Case I: Analysis of Automated Flow Lines Without Storage Buffer: (Continued……)
2. Performance Measures (Continued..)
Line Efficiency (E)
In the context of automated production lines, line efficiency refers to the proportion of uptime on the line
and is really a measure of reliability more than efficiency.
Line efficiency/
Proportion of uptime (E)

where E = the proportion of uptime on the production line

 An alternative measure of performance is the proportion of downtime (D) on the line, which is
given by

Proportion of downtime (D)

Case I: Analysis of Automated Flow Lines Without Storage Buffer: (Continued……)
2. Performance Measures (Continued..)

Piece Cost (or) Cost per Piece (or) Cost per unit (or) Cost per item (Cpc)
 An important performance measure of an automated production line is the cost per unit produced.
 This piece cost includes the cost of the starting material that is to be processed on the line, the
cost of time on the production line, and the cost of any tooling that is consumed (e.g., cutting
tools on a machining line).

where
Cpc = cost per piece ($/pc)
Cm = cost of starting material ($/pc)
Co = cost per minute to operate the line, ($/min); Co includes the allocation of the capital cost of the
equipment over its expected service life, labor to operate the line, applicable overheads, maintenance
and other relevant costs, all reduced to a cost per minute
Tp = average production time per piece (min/pc) and
Ct = cost of tooling per piece, ($/pc).
Numerical Problem 19: A six station rotary transfer line performs the function as listed in the table below.
Transfer time = 0.18 min. Average downtime per occurrence = 8.0 min. A total of 20,000 parts must be
processed through the transfer machine.
Determine
(a)Line Efficiency
(b)proportion downtime,
(c)average hourly production rate, and
(d)how many hours of operation are required to produce the 20,000 parts.
Solution:
Given: n = 6, Tr = 0.18 min, number of parts = 20000, Td = 8 min, Max {Tsi} = 1.32 min,

i) Production Rate

= 1.32 + 0.18 = 1.5

F = Frequency of line stops = np

= 1.5 + 0.08 X 8 = 2.14 min/pc

ii) Line Efficiency/Proportion Uptime

ii) Proportion Downtime

iii) Hours required to produce the 20000 parts

= 20000 x 2.14/60= 713.3 hr

Numerical Problem 20: An 8 station rotary indexing
machine performs the machining operations, the details of
which are shown in the table below. The transfer time for
the machine is 0.15 min/cycle. A study of the system was
undertaken during which 2000 parts were completed. It
was determined in this study that when breakdowns
occur, it takes an average of 7 min to make repairs and get
the system operating again. Number of Breakdowns= 250

I. Assuming upper-bound approach determine:

i)average actual production rate,
ii)line uptime efficiency,
iii)how many hours were required to produce the 2000 parts?
II. Assuming lower-bound approach determine:
iv)the number of starting parts required to produce 2000 parts line uptime efficiency,
v) line uptime efficiency
vi) total time required to produce 2000 acceptable parts
Solution:
I. Assuming upper-bound approach

Given: n = 8, Tr = 0.15 min/cycle, number of parts = 2000, Td = 7 min, Max {Tsi} = 1.10 min,

i) Production Rate

= 1.10 + 0.15 = 1.25 min/cycle

(2000 parts = 2000 cycles)

F = Number of breakdown/Number of cycles

F=np
Eg. For work station 2: F = 22/2000
 pi
0/2000 = 0
22/2000 = 0.011
31/2000 = 0.0155
47/2000 = 0.0235

8/2000 = 0.004
58/2000 = 0.029
58/2000 = 0.042

0/2000 = 0

F = Frequency of line stops = np =

 = 1.25 + 0.125 X 7 = 2.125 min/pc

ii) Line efficiency (E)

iii) Hours required to produce the 2000 parts

= Number of products x Tp
= 2000 x 2.125/60 = 70.83 hr
II. Assuming lower-bound approach
iv) the number of starting parts required to produce 2000 parts line uptime efficiency

For lower bound approach

Here, pi is different for different station,

therefore”
v) line uptime efficiency

= 1.10 + 0.15 = 1.25 min/cycle

= 1.25 + 0.119 X 7 = 2.084 min/pc

vi) Rate of Production and total time required to produce 2000 acceptable parts

Total time required to produce 2000 acceptable parts = Number of products x Tp

= 2000 x 2.084/60 = 69.467 hr
Numerical Problem 21: A machine tool builder submits a proposal for a 20-station transfer line to machine
a certain component currently produced by conventional methods. The proposal states that the line will
operate at a production rate of 50 pc/hr at 100% efficiency. On similar transfer lines, the probability of
station breakdowns per cycle is equal for all stations: p = 0.005 breakdowns/cycle. It is also estimated that
the average downtime per line stop will be 8.0 min. The starting casting that is to be machined on the line
costs $3.00 per part. The line operates at a cost of $75.00/hr. The 20 cutting tools (one tool per station) last
for 50 parts each, and average cost per tool is $2.00 per cutting edge. Determine (a) production rate, (b) line
efficiency, and (c) cost per piece produced on the line.

Solution: Given- n =20, Td = 8 min, p = 0.005, Cm =$3 per part, Co= $75/hr=75/60 = $1.25 per min,
no. of parts =50, Cost per tool= $2 per tool, Number of cutting tools = 20

(a) Production Rate

 The proposal states that the line will operate at a production rate of 50 pc/hr at 100% efficiency (i.e) Cycle rate
= Rc = 50 pc/hr

F= np = 20 x 0.005 = 0.1 breakdowns/cycle

= 1.2 + 0.1 x 8 = 2 min/pc

(b) line efficiency (E)

c) cost per piece produced on the line

Ct=

= 3 + (0.125 x 2) + 0.8 = $6.3/pc

Numerical Problem 22:
I. A ten-station transfer machine has an ideal cycle time of 30 sec. The frequency of line stops is 0.075
stops per cycle. When a line stop occurs due to random mechanical and electrical failures on the line. ,
the average downtime is 4.0 min.
Determine (a) average production rate in pc/hr, (b) line efficiency, and (c) proportion downtime.

II. Suppose that in addition to these reasons for downtime, that the tools at each workstation on the line
must be changed and/or reset every 150 cycles. This procedure takes a total of 12.0 min for all ten
stations. Include this additional data to determine (a) average production rate in pc/hr, (b) line
efficiency, and (c) proportion downtime.
I. Solution: Given: Tc = 30 s = 30/60 = 0.5 min, F = 0.075 per cycle, Td = 4 min.

(a) average production rate in pc/hr

= 0.5 + 0.075 x 4 = 0.8 min/pc

(b) line efficiency (E)

(c) Proportion Downtime (D): D=1-E=1-0.625 = 0.375 = 37.5 %

II. Suppose that in addition to these reasons for downtime, that the tools at each workstation on the line must
be changed and/or reset every 150 cycles. This procedure takes a total of 12.0 min for all ten stations. Include
this additional data to determine (a) average production rate in pc/hr, (b) line efficiency, and (c) proportion
downtime.

Solution: Given: Tc = 30 s = 30/60 = 0.5 min, F1 = 0.075 per cycle, Td1 = 4 min.

Considering the additional data: F2 = 1/150 , Td2 = 12

(a) average production rate in pc/hr

(b) line efficiency (E)

(c) Proportion Downtime (D): D=1-E=1-0.5682 = 0.4318 = 43.18 %

 CONTROL FUNCTIONS IN AN AUTOMATED FLOW LINE
1. Sequence control
 The purpose of this function is to coordinate the sequence of actions of the transfer system and its
workstations.
 The various activities of the automated flow line must be carried out with split-second timing and
accuracy.
 Sequence control is basic to the operation of the flow line.

2. Safety monitoring
 This function ensures that the transfer system does not operate in an unsafe or hazardous condition.
 Sensing devices may be added to make certain that the cutting tool status is satisfactory to continue to
process the work part in the case of a machining-type transfer line.
 Other checks might include monitoring certain critical steps in the sequence control function to make sure
that these steps have all been performed and in the correct order.
 Hydraulic or air pressures might also be checked if these are crucial to the operation of automated flow
CONTROL FUNCTIONS IN AN AUTOMATED FLOW LINE………….
3. Quality monitoring:
The third control function is to monitor certain quality attributes of the work part.
Its purpose is to identify and possibly reject defective work parts and assemblies.
The inspection devices required to perform quality monitoring are sometimes incorporated into
existing processing stations.
In other cases, separate stations are included in the line for the sole purpose of inspecting the
work part as shown in figure.

Figure: Inspection station with feedback

Conventional thinking on the control of the line has been to stop operation when a malfunction occurred.
While there are certain malfunctions representing unsafe conditions that demand shutdown of the line,
there are other situations where stoppage of the line is not required and perhaps not even desirable.

There are alternative control strategies

1.Instantaneous control; 2. Memory control

1. Instantaneous control
This mode of control stops the operation of the flow line immediately when a malfunction is detected.
It is relatively simple, inexpensive, and trouble-free.
Diagnostic features are often added to the system to aid in identifying the location and cause of the
trouble to the operator so that repairs can be quickly made.
However, stopping the machine results in loss of production from the entire line, and this is the
system's biggest drawback.
2. Memory control

In contrast to instantaneous control, the memory system is designed to keep the machine operating.
It works to control quality and/or protect the machine by preventing subsequent stations from
processing the particular work part and by segregating the part as defective at the end of the line.
The premise upon which memory-type control is based is that the failures which occur at the stations
will be random and infrequent.
If, however, the station failures result from cause and tend to repeat, the memory system will not
improve production but, rather, degrade it.
The flow line will continue to operate, with the consequence that bad parts will continue to be
produced.
For this reason, a counter is sometimes used so that if a failure occurs at the same station for two or
three consecutive cycles, the memory logic will cause the machine to stop for repairs.
 STORAGE BUFFER
 Automated production lines can be designed with storage buffers.
 A storage buffer is a location in the production line where parts can be collected and
temporarily stored before proceeding to downstream workstations.
 The storage buffers can be manually operated or automated.
 When it is automated, a storage buffer consists of a mechanism to accept parts from the upstream
workstation, a place to store the parts, and a mechanism to supply parts to the downstream station.
 A key parameter of a storage buffer is its storage capacity, that is, the number of work parts it can
hold.
 Storage buffers may be located between every pair of adjacent stations, or between line stages
containing multiple stations.
 (*)Two principal reasons for the use of buffer storage zones

1.To reduce the effect of individual station breakdowns on the line operation
When breakdowns occur at the individual stations or when preventive maintenance is applied to the machine,
production must be halted. In many cases, the proportion of time the line spends out of operation can be significant,
perhaps reaching 50% or more. Some of the common reasons for line stoppages are :
•Tool failures or tool adjustments at individual processing stations
•Scheduled tool changes
•Defective work parts or components at assembly stations, which require that the feed mechanism be cleared
•Feed hopper needs to be replenished at an assembly station
•Limit switch or other electrical malfunction
•Mechanical failure of transfer system or workstation
When a breakdown occurs on an automated flow line, the purpose of the buffer storage zone is to allow a portion of
the line to continue operating while the remaining portion is stopped and under repair.
2. To smooth out the effects of variations in cycle times.
These variations occur either between stations or, in the case of flow lines with one or more
manual stations, they can occur from cycle to cycle at the same station.
To illustrate the second case, suppose that we are considering an assembly line on which all the
stations are mechanized except one.
The manual station requires the operator to perform an alignment of two components and the
time required tends to vary from cycle to cycle.
For the transfer system in this line, we must choose between a synchronous system with no
parts storage capacity and an asynchronous system which allows a “float” of parts ahead of each
station.
Reasons for using storage buffers:
To reduce effect of station breakdowns
To smooth cycle time variations
To provide a bank of parts to supply the line
To provide a place to put the output of the line
To allow curing time or other required delay
To store parts between stages with different production rates

Disadvantage of storage buffers:

Increased factory floor space
Higher in-process inventory
Requirement of more number of material handling equipment
Greater complexity of the overall flow line system
 (*) Starving and Blocking
Starving
Starving on an automated production line means that a workstation is prevented from performing its cycle
because it has no part to work on.

When a breakdown occurs at any workstation on the line, the downstream stations will either immediately or
eventually become starved for parts.

Blocking
Blocking means that a station is prevented from performing its work cycle because it cannot pass the part just
completed to the neighboring downstream station.

When a breakdown occurs at a station on the line, the upstream stations become blocked because the broken-
down station cannot accept the next part for processing from its upstream neighbor.

Therefore, none of the upstream stations can pass its completed part forward.
 Starving and Blocking……….
 Downtime on an automated line due to starving and blocking can be reduced by adding one or more parts-
storage buffers between workstations.
 Storage buffers divide the line into stages that can operate independently for a number of cycles, the
number depending on the storage capacity of the buffer.
 If one storage buffer is used, the line is divided into two stages.

 If two buffers are used at two different locations along the line, then a three stage line is formed, and so
forth. The upper limit is to have storage buffers between every pair of adjacent stations.
 The number of stages will then equal the number of workstations.
 For an n-stage line, there will be n - 1 storage buffers, not including the raw parts inventory at the
front of the line or the finished parts inventory at the end of the line.
 Starving and Blocking………

 Consider a two-stage transfer line, with a storage buffer separating the stages.

 Suppose that, on average, the storage buffer is half full.

 If the first stage breaks down, the second stage can continue to operate (avoid starving) using parts
that have been collected in the buffer.

 And if the second stage breaks down, the first stage can continue to operate (avoid blocking) because
it has the buffer to receive its output.

 The reasoning for a two stage line can be extended to production lines with more than two stages.
For any number of stages in an automated production line, the storage buffers allow each stage to
operate somewhat independently, the degree of independence depending on the capacity of the
upstream and downstream buffers.
CASE II: Analysis of Automated Flow Lines With Storage Buffer:
Mathematical Models
Limits of Storage Buffer Effectiveness
Two extreme cases of storage buffer effectiveness can be identified:
(1)No buffer storage capacity at all, and
(2)Infinite capacity storage buffers

1) No buffer storage capacity at all

 In the following analysis, it is assumed that the ideal cycle time T c is the same for all stages considered.
 This is generally desirable in practice because it helps to balance production rates among stages.
 In the case of no storage capacity, the production line acts as one stage.
 When a station breaks down, the entire line stops.
 This is the case of a production line with no internal storage.
 The efficiency of the line,
the subscript ‘0’ identifies E0 as the efficiency of a
line with zero storage buffer capacity
 CASE II: Analysis of Automated Flow Lines With Storage
Buffer……..
2) Infinite capacity storage buffers
 The opposite extreme is the theoretical case where buffer zones of infinite capacity are installed between
every pair of stages.
 If it is assumed that each buffer zone is half full (in other words, each buffer zone has an infinite supply of
parts as well as the capacity to accept an infinite number of additional parts), then each stage is
independent of the rest.
 The presence of infinite storage buffers means that no stage will ever be blocked or starved because of a
breakdown at some other stage. Of course, an infinite capacity storage buffer cannot be realized in
practice.
 For all transfer lines with storage buffers, the overall line efficiency is limited by the bottleneck stage.
 That is, production on all other stages is ultimately restricted by the slowest stage.
 The downstream stages can only process parts at the output rate of the bottleneck stage and it makes no
sense to run the upstream stages at higher production rates because this will only accumulate inventory
in the storage buffer ahead of the bottleneck.
 CASE II: Analysis of Automated Flow Lines With Storage
Buffer……..
2) Infinite capacity storage buffers……..

 As a practical matter, therefore, the upper limit on the efficiency of the entire line is determined by the
efficiency of the bottleneck stage.
 Given that the cycle time Tc is the same for all stages, the efficiency of any stage k is given by

where the subscript ‘k’ is used to identify the stage

 According to the preceding logic, the overall line efficiency is given by

where the subscript ‘∞’ identifies E∞ as the efficiency of a line whose storage buffers all have infinite capacity.
 CASE II: Analysis of Automated Flow Lines With Storage
Buffer……..
2) Infinite capacity storage buffers……..

 By including one or more storage buffers in an automated production line, one expects the line

efficiency to be greater than E0 but E∞ cannot be achieved because buffer zones of infinite
capacity are not possible.
 Hence, the actual value of line efficiency for a given buffer capacity b will fall somewhere
between these extremes:

E 0 < Eb < E∞
 CASE II: Analysis of Automated Flow Lines With Storage
Buffer……..
Analysis of a Two-Stage Transfer Line (When k=2, Find Eb)
(Buzacott’s analysis)

 The two-stage line is divided by a storage buffer of capacity b, which is the number of work parts it can store.
 The buffer receives the output of stage 1 and forwards it to stage 2, temporarily storing any parts up to its
capacity b when stage 2 experiences a line stop.
 The ideal cycle time Tc is the same for both stages.
Analysis of a Two-Stage Transfer Line (When k=2, Find Eb)…..

 It is assumed that the downtime distributions of each stage are the same with mean downtime = Td.
 Let F1 and F2 = the breakdown rates of stages 1 and 2, respectively;
 F1 and F2 are not necessarily equal.
 Over the long run, both stages must have equal efficiencies.
 If the efficiency of stage 1 were greater than that of stage 2, then inventory would build up in the storage
buffer until its capacity b is reached.
 Thereafter, stage 1 would be blocked when it out-produced stage 2.
 Similarly, if the efficiency of stage 2 were greater than that of stage 1, the inventory in the buffer would
become depleted, thus starving stage 2.
 Accordingly, the efficiencies in the two stages would tend to equalize over time. The overall line efficiency
for the two-stage line can be expressed as
Analysis of a Two-Stage Transfer Line (When k=2, Find Eb)……

where
Eb = overall line efficiency for a two-stage line with buffer capacity ‘b’;

E0 = line efficiency for the same line with no internal storage (b=0); and
The term represents the improvement in efficiency that results from having a storage buffer
with b > 0.

D′ 1 = the proportion of total time that stage 1 is down

Analysis of a Two-Stage Transfer Line (When k=2, Find Eb)……

 h(b) is the proportion of the downtime D′1 (when stage 1 is down) that stage 2 could be up and

operating within the limits of storage buffer capacity b.

 Buzacott presents equations for evaluating h(b) using Markov chain analysis.

 The equations cover several different downtime distributions based on the assumption that
both stages are never down at the same time.

 Assumptions and definitions:

 Assume that the two stages have equal downtime distributions: T d1 = Td2 = Td

 Assume that two stages have equal cycle times: Tc1 = Tc2 = Tc2.

 Let F1 = downtime frequency for stage 1 and F2 = downtime frequency for stage 2.
 Define r to be the ratio of breakdown frequencies as follows:
Analysis of a Two-Stage Transfer Line (When k=2, Find Eb)……
 Based on the assumptions and assumption, the relationships for h(b) can be expressed for two
theoretical downtime distributions as derived by Buzacott:

 Constant downtime:
 Each downtime occurrence is assumed to be of constant duration T d.
 This is a case of no downtime variation.
Buffer capacity b,

where B = Maximum Integer

L represents the leftover units, the amount by which b exceeds

 Analysis of a Two-Stage Transfer Line (When k=2, Find Eb)……

There are two cases: (For Constant Down Time)

Analysis of a Two-Stage Transfer Line (When k=2, Find Eb)……

 Geometric downtime distribution:

 In this downtime distribution, the probability that repairs are completed during any cycle duration T c is

independent of the time since repairs began.

 This is a case of maximum downtime variation.

There are two cases: (For Geometric Down Time)

 Finally, E2 corrects for the unrealistic assumption in the calculation of h(b) that both stages are never

down at the same time.

 What is more realistic is that when stage 1 is down but stage 2 is producing using parts stored in the
buffer, occasionally stage 2 itself will break down.

E2 is calculated as

 It should be mentioned that Buzacott’s derivation of Equation omitted the E2 term, relying on the
assumption that stages 1 and 2 will not share downtimes.
 However, without E2 the equation tends to overestimate line efficiency.
 With the inclusion of E2 the calculated values are much more realistic.
Production Rates on the Two-Stage Line
Transfer Lines with More Than Two Stages
 If the line efficiency of an automated production line can be increased by dividing it into two

stages with a storage buffer between, then one might infer that further improvements in

performance can be achieved by adding additional storage buffers.

 Although exact formulas are not presented to compute line efficiencies as a function of buffer

capacity b in lines with more than one storage buffer, efficiencies can readily be determined for

the case of infinite buffer capacity in such lines.

 Practical guidelines in the design and operation of automated
production lines with internal storage buffers
 If E0 and E∞ are nearly equal in value, little advantage is gained by adding a storage buffer to the line.

 If E∞ is significantly greater than E0, then storage buffers offer the possibility of significantly improving

line performance.

 In considering a multistage automated production line, workstations should be divided into stages so as
to make the efficiencies of all stages as equal as possible.

 In this way, the maximum difference between E0 and E∞ is achieved, and no single stage will stand out as a

significant bottleneck.

 In the operation of an automated production line with storage buffers, if any of the buffers are nearly
always empty or nearly always full, this indicates that the production rates of the stages on either side of
the buffer are out of balance and that the storage buffer is serving little useful purpose.
 Practical guidelines in the design and operation of automated
production lines with internal storage buffers……….

 The maximum possible line efficiency is achieved by

(1)setting the number of stages equal to the number of stations—that is, by providing a storage buffer between
every pair of stations and

(2)by using large capacity buffers.

 The “law of diminishing returns” operates in multistage automated lines. It is manifested in two ways:

(1)as the number of storage buffers is increased, line efficiency improves at an ever decreasing rate, and

(2)as the storage buffer capacity is increased, line efficiency improves at an ever decreasing rate.
Numerical Problem 23: (REFER CLASS NOTES FOR SOLUTION)
A 30-station transfer line has an ideal cycle time of 0.75 min, an average downtime of 6.0 min per line stop
occurrence, and a station failure frequency of 0.01 for all stations.
I.A proposal has been submitted to locate a storage buffer between stations 15 and 16 to improve line
efficiency.
Determine (a) the current line efficiency and production rate, and (b) the maximum possible line efficiency and
production rate that would result from installing the storage buffer.
II. If the proposal is to divide the line into three stages, that is, with two storage buffers located between
stations 10 and 11, and between stations 20 and 21, respectively
Determine the maximum possible line efficiency and production rate that would result from installing the
storage buffer.
III. If the proposal is to use an asynchronous line with large storage buffers between every pair of stations
on the line: that is, a total of 29 storage buffers.
Determine the maximum possible line efficiency and production rate that would result from installing the
storage buffer.
Numerical Problem 24 (REFER CLASS NOTES FOR SOLUTION)

A 20-station transfer line is divided into two stages of 10 stations each. The ideal cycle time of each stage is

Tc = 1.2 min. All of the stations in the line have the same probability of stopping, p = 0.005. The downtime,

Td = 8.0 min.

I. Assume Constant Downtime and Compute the line efficiencies and Production rates for
the following buffer capacities:

(a)b = 0, (b) b = ∞, (c) b = 10, and (d) b = 100.

II. Assume Geometric Downtime and Compute the line efficiencies and Production rates for the
following buffer capacities:

(a)b = 0, (b) b = ∞, (c) b = 10, and (d) b = 100.

 Assignment: Numerical Problems
(2 Mark Questions)
1.

2.

3.

4. The dial indexing machine of Numerical Problem 3 experiences a breakdown frequency of 0.06
stops/cycle. The average downtime per breakdown is 3.5 min. Determine (a) average production
rate in pc/hr and (b) line efficiency.
Automated Production Lines (No Internal Storage)
1.

2. A ten-station rotary indexing machine performs nine machining operations at nine workstations,
and the tenth station is used for loading and unloading parts. The longest process time on the line
is 1.30 min and the loading/unloading operation can be accomplished in less time than this. It
takes 9.0 sec to index the machine between workstations. Stations break down with a frequency
of 0.007, which is considered equal for all ten stations. When these stops occur, it takes an
average of 10.0 min to diagnose the problem and make repairs. Determine (a) line efficiency and
(b) average actual production rate.
3.
4. A transfer machine has a mean time between failures (MTBF) = 50 minutes and a
mean time to repair (MTTR) = 9 minutes. If the ideal cycle rate = 1/min (when the
machine is running), what is the average hourly production rate?
5.

6.
Automated Production Lines (With Storage Buffer)
I. A proposal has been submitted to locate a storage buffer between stations 15 and
16.
(i) List the reasons for including a storage buffer in an automated production line.
(ii) Determine the current line efficiency and production rate, and the maximum possible
line efficiency and production rate that would result from installing the storage buffer.
II. Solve the problem assuming that each station breakdown causes damage to the work part
so that it must be removed from the line. Station breakdown or stop with a frequency of
0.002, which is considered equal for all 23 stations. Determine
(i) proportion downtime, (ii) average actual production rate, (iii) how many hours of
operations are required to produce the 20,000 acceptable parts, and (iv) how many
starting parts are required to produce the 20,000 acceptable parts.
2.
 Previous Years Questions
1. Outline the operation of the walking beam transfer system. (3
Marks)
2. When a station breakdown occurs, what are the possible events that may happen to a working part
at that station? For these events, how to determine the frequency of line stops per cycle? (4 Marks)
3. Reliability of an automated station will definitely be on the lower side compared to manual stations.
Knowing the above statement, under what case an automated station can be substituted for a
manual station? (4 Marks)
4. Detail the key features based on which the selection of the method of work part transfer systems is
carried out. (4
Marks)
5. Identify and briefly describe the three major categories of mechanized work transport systems
used in production lines. (4
Marks)
7.

(10 Marks)
8.
 Review Question (PYQs)
1 a) i) What could be the reasons behind a decision “not to automate” a production part? (2 Marks)
ii) Specify the various levels of automation in a production plant. (2 Marks)

2. Discuss the strategies that can be used for automation and process improvement. (6 Marks)

3.
(3 Marks)
(2 Marks)

4.

(5 Marks)

205
5.
(10 Marks)

6.
(2 Marks)

7.
(10 Marks)

206
(7 Marks)

207