FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

G2-ECE, SECTION “A & C”

 Chapter - One
Basics of circuit theory
 PRESENTATION OUTLINE
 Electrical charge

 Voltage and current

 Power and energy

 Review of electromagnetism
 INTRODUCTION
Electricity is the set of physical phenomena associated with the presence and flow
of electric charge.
Electricity gives a wide variety of well-known effects, such as lightning, static
electricity, electromagnetic induction and electric current.
Electronics industry is one that will have a sweeping impact on future
development in a wide range of areas that affect our life style, general health, and
capabilities.
Electrical and electronic equipment are everywhere today.
Televisions, radios, computers, mobile phones, robots and many more are just few
among many.
CONT.
An electric circuit is an interconnections of electrical elements.
A simple electric circuit is shown in Fig.1.It consists of three basic elements: a
battery, a lamp, and connecting wires.
Such a simple circuit can exist by itself; it has several applications, such as a flash
light, a search light and so forth.

Fig1: A simple electric circuit

 ELECTRICAL CHARGE
Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles of which matter consists,
measured in coulombs(C).
All matter is made of fundamental building blocks known as atoms and that each
atom consists of electrons, protons, and neutrons.
The law of conservation of charge states that charge can neither be created nor
destroyed, only transferred.
The total amount of energy does not change – this is called energy conservation.
A unique features of electric charge of electricity is the fact that it is mobile; that
is , it can be transferred from one place to another, where it can be converted to
another form of energy.
Energy Conversion…
 CURRENT
When a conducting wire (consisting of several atoms) is connected to a battery (a
source of electromotive force), the charges are compelled to move; positive
charges move in one direction while negative charges move in the opposite
direction.
This motion of charges creates electric current.
CONT.
It is conventional to take the current flow as the movement of positive charges.

That is, opposite to the flow of negative charges, as shown in Fig.2.

Fig 2: Electric current due to flow of electronic charge in a conductor

CONT.
Electric current is the time rate of change of charge, measured in amperes(A).

Mathematically expressed as: i =

When current is measured in amperes(A), and

1 ampere = 1 coulomb/second
 VOLTAGE
For the charge to move from one location to the next, it needs a force which pushes

it forward or backward.

To move the electron in a conductor in a particular direction requires some work or

energy transfer.

This work is performed by an external electromotive force (emf).

Typically represented by the battery in Fig.2.

This emf is also known as voltage or potential difference.

The voltage between two points a and b in an electric circuit is the energy or work

needed to move a unit charge from a to b;

CONT.
Voltage is the energy required to move a unit charge through an element,

measured in volts(V).

Mathematically,

T Vab or simply v is measured in volts(V).

1 volt=1 joule/coulomb=1 newton-meter/coulomb

CONT.
Fig.3 shows the voltage across an element (represented by a rectangular block)
connected to points a and b.
The plus(+) and minus(-) signs are used to define reference direction or voltage
polarity.
The

i. Point a is at a potential of volts higher than point b, or

ii. The potential at point a with respect to point b is .
It follows logically that in general, Fig.3: Polarity of
voltage Vab
 POWER AND ENERGY
When the voltage applied moves electrons, it is said to be doing some work.
Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy, measured in watts(W).
We write this relationship as;

P = , it follows that
P=
Passive sign convention is satisfied when the current enters through the positive
terminal of an element and p =+vi. If the current enters through the negative
terminal, p =-vi.
+Power absorbed = -Power supplied
Cont.

-12W
12
W
 CONT.
In fact, the law of conservation of energy must be obeyed in any electric circuit.
For this reason, the algebraic sum of power in a circuit, at any instant of time,
must be zero:

This again confirms the facts that the total power supplied to the circuit must
balance the total power absorbed.
The energy absorbed or supplied by an element from time to time t is;

W=
CONT.
Energy is the capacity to do work, measured in joules (J).

The electric power utility companies measure energy in watt-hours (Wh), where

1 Wh = 3600 J

Example-1:- An energy source forces a constant current if 2A for 10s to flow

through a light bulb, If 2.3kJ is given off in the form of light and heat energy,
calculate the voltage drop across the bulb.

Answer

The voltage drop is 115V

 PROBLEM

Q1. How much energy does a 100 W electric bulb consume in two
hours?

Ans. W = 200Wh = 720kJ

Q2. A stove element draws 15A when connected to a 240V line. How
long does it take to consume 180kJ?

Ans. T = 50s
 ELECTROMAGNETISM

Electromagnetism = electricity + magnetism.

Electricity is defined as "the flow of electrons through simple materials and device

or "that force which moves electrons’’.

Magnetism-is the study of materials with magnetic properties(the property of the

material for attracting/repelling other materials).

Electromagnetism deals with magnetic effects induced by the flow of charge, or

current.
CONT.
Electromagnet is a temporary magnet which can be turned on and off using

electric current.

Magnetism plays an integral part in almost every electrical device used today in

industry, research, or the home.

Generators, motors, transformers, circuit breakers, televisions, computers, tape

recorders, and telephones all employ magnetic effects to perform a variety of

important tasks.
USES OF ELECTROMAGNETS

Electric bell
Thank
you!!
 Chapter -Two
Introduction to circuit
elements
 Presentation Outline
 Voltage source

 Current source

 Resistor, capacitor and inductor

 Introduction
Circuit elements are devices which are used to construct electric circuits.

A circuit element usually has two terminals (sometimes three or more).

The relationship between the voltage v across the terminals and the current i

through the device defines the circuit element model.

Cont.
Circuit elements are classified as either active or passive elements.

Active elements: It supplies (generate) energy to the circuit.

Passive elements: are not capable of generating energy.

But they absorb energy and sometimes store energy for some time.

Active elements are divided into independent sources and dependent sources.
Example…
Cont.
An ideal independent source is an active element that provides a specified
voltage or current that is completely independent of other circuit elements.

An ideal dependent source is an active element in which the source quantity is
controlled by another voltage or current.
 Energy Sources
Classification

• Independent Source or Dependent Source

• Voltage Source or Current Source

• DC Source or AC Source

• Ideal Source or Practical Source

 Ideal Independent (uncontrolled) Sources
Independent sources, which produce a particular voltage or current completely

unaffected by what is happening in the remainder of the circuit.

Independent sources are divided into independent voltage source and independent

current source.

An independent voltage source is a two terminal element that maintains a

specified voltage between its terminals regardless of the current through it.

An independent current source is a two terminal element that maintains a

specified current regardless of the voltage across its terminals.

Independent Sources…

Independent voltage source Independent current source

Symbols of independent a) voltage and b) current sources

 Independent Ideal Voltage Source

Source
Load

Note that the source determines the voltage, but the current is determined by the
load.
The source has zero internal resistance.
 Independent Ideal Current Source

Source
Load

Note that the source determines the current, but the voltage is determined by
the load.
The source has infinite internal resistance (Ri).
 Ideal Dependent(controlled) Sources
Dependent sources generate a voltage or current that is determined by a voltage or
current at specified location in the circuit.
These sources are very important because they are an integral part of the
mathematical models used to describe the behavior of many electronic circuit
elements.
Four possible combinations
• Voltage controlled voltage source (VCVS)
• Current controlled voltage source (CCVS)
• Voltage controlled current source (VCCS)
• Current controlled current source (CCCS)
Cont.
In contrast to the circle used to represent independent sources, a diamond is used

to represent a dependent or controlled source.

Figure below illustrates the four types of dependent sources.

The input terminals on the left represent the voltage or current that controls the

dependent source, and the output terminals on the right represent the output
current or voltage of the controlled source.

Dependent sources are useful in modeling elements such as transistors,

operational amplifiers, and integrated circuits.

Examples
 Example-1
Q1. Determine the power supplied or absorbed by each element in figure below.
 Practice Problem-1
 Compute the power absorbed or supplied by each component of the circuit in

Figure below.
 Voltage Source
An ideal voltage source is a circuit element that will maintain the specified
voltage vs across its terminals.
The current will be determined by other circuit elements.
 Current Source
An ideal current source is a circuit element that maintains the specified current
flow is through its terminals.
The voltage is determined by other circuit elements.
 Battery as Voltage Source
A voltage source is an idealization (no limit on current) and generalization
(voltage can be time-varying) of a battery.
A battery supplies a constant “dc” voltage V but in practice a battery has a
maximum power.
 Ideal and Real Sources
Ideal sources: are voltage or current sources with no internal loss of power.
Real sources: are existing sources of current or voltage with a natural unavoidable
loss.
Ideal sources are approximations of real sources with negligible internal loss.

Ideal sources Real sources

Ideal Voltage Sources
Connected In Series
Ideal Current Sources
Connected In Parallel
Practical Voltage Sources
Connected In Parallel
Practical Current Sources
Connected In Series
 Resistor
Resistors are made of materials that conduct electricity, but offer opposition to

current flow.
Resistors are made purposely to be used in electric circuits of different devices.
A resistor is a physical device that can be purchased in certain standard values

in an electronic parts store.

Any conducting material can be used to make a resistor.
A resistor has its own characteristic of limiting the current flowing through it.

This property is called resistance, measured in Ohms(Ω).

 Symbol of Resistor

a) Resistor b) Variable resistor

c) Physical appearance of resistor

 Resistance
 In addition to resistors, metallic conductors have resistance property which

depends on the length, cross-sectional area and the nature of the material of
the conductor.
 The resistance R of an element denotes its ability to resist the flow of electric

current.
 The resistance of a given conductor with length l and cross-sectional area A

can be calculated as, , where ρ is called the resistivity of the conductor

material measured in Ω-m(Ohm meter).
Cont.
 Different conductor materials have different resistivity values.(look at the table

put on the next page).

 As shown on the table silver has least value of resistivity followed by copper.

But silver is not as abundant as aluminum and copper.

 Therefore, Aluminum and copper are used as conductors in the current

electronic and power industry.

 Silver may sometimes be used where it is mandatory to use the best conductor

material.
Resistivity of common materials
 Resistance and temperature
The resistance of a conductor increases as temperature increases.

The resistance of the conductor at any temperature ‘t’ is R t=Ro(1+αt) where Ro

is the resistance of the conductor at 0oc temperature, α is called resistance

temperature coefficient.
If we know the resistance of the material at temperature t 1, the resistance of the

same material at temperature t2 can be calculated R2=R1(1+α(t2-t1).

 Temperature effect on conductors, insulators and
semiconductors
The resistance of the conductor increase with an increase of temperature.
Whereas, the resistance of semiconductors and insulators decreases with an
increase in temperature.
 Electric circuit
Electric circuit is an interconnection of various elements in which there is at
least one closed path in which current can flow.
The performance of any electrical device or machine is always studied by

drawing its equivalent electrical circuit.

By simulating an electric circuit, any type of system can be studied for e.g.,

mechanical, hydraulic thermal, nuclear, traffic flow, weather prediction etc.

The point where those electrons enter an electrical circuit is called the "source"

of electrons.
The point where the electrons leave an electrical circuit is called the "return" or

"earth ground".
The exit point is called the "return" because electrons always end up at the

source when they complete the path of an electrical circuit. 54

 Circuit components

All electric circuits have three main parts

• A source of energy
• A closed path
• A device which uses the energy
If any part of the circuit is open the device will not work!
 Basic circuit
Power Source (Battery, Alternator, Generator, etc.)
Protection Device (Fuse, Fusible Link, or Circuit Breaker)
Load Device (Lamp, Motor, Resistor, etc.)
Control (Switch, Relay, or Transistor)
Conductors (A Return Path, Wiring to Ground)

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Circuit diagram with representative symbols

Basic Electrical circuit Diagram

57
Cont…
 But a real system may have two or more resistors (loads), sources connected

systematically.
 Sources can be connected in series or in parallel, or series parallel.

 Resistors can also be connected in series, in parallel, series parallel or in any

complex manner.
 A circuit can also be made up of combination of resistors, capacitors, inductors,

and any other electronic components.

58
 Series connected voltage sources
When two sources are connected in series in the same fashion, the total voltage will

be the sum of all voltages connected.

Series aiding voltage sources are series connected sources with their polarities

connected so that the plus terminal of one is connected to the negative terminal of the
next allowing current to flow in the same direction.
Example, the two voltages of 5V and 3V of the first circuit can be added as 5+3 = 8V.

59
Cont.
 Series opposing voltage sources are series connected sources which have their

polarities connected so that the plus or the negative terminals are connected
together as shown in the second circuit above.
o Resulting in VS =5–3 = 2V.
 Parallel connected voltage sources
Only sources with the same voltage are allowed to be connected in parallel.

61
Parallel connected current sources

Series connected current sources

62
 Series circuit
 The resistors are connected end to end.

 The current flowing through all resistors is the same.

 The source voltage is equal to the sum of voltage drops across all the resistors in

the circuit.
 The total resistance of the system is the sum of all resistances in the circuit.

E=V1+V2+V3, I=I1=I2=I3

Rt=R1+R2+ R3
 It is a one path circuit.

 If any resistor is broken or a fault occurs,

then the entire circuit is turned off. 63

 Example-2
Q2. Find i) the equivalent resistance, ii) the total current through the circuit, iii)
the potential drop across each resistor and iv) the power dissipated by a resistor.
 Parallel circuits
The two terminals of the resistors are connected together.

The voltage across all resistors is the same.

The source current is equal to the sum of current flowing through all the resistors

in the circuit.
The reciprocal of total resistance of the system is the sum of the reciprocals of all

resistances in the circuit.

I=I1+I2+I3, E=V1=V2=V3
1/Rt=1/R1+1/R2+1/R3

65
Cont.
The equivalent resistance is less than the smallest resistance in the circuit.

It has many path for electricity.

If one light goes out from the circuit, then the remaining can stay on

(Functional).
Most power system loads are connected in parallel.
 Example-3
Q3. Considering the circuit of Figure below , calculated (a) the total resistance
of the circuit, (b) the three branch current, and (c) the current drawn from the
battery.
 Series Parallel Circuit
Such a circuit consists of both series and parallel connected elements.

Such circuits are solved by reducing either to completely parallel or completely

series circuit.

68
 Example-4
Q4. Find for the circuit

Ω
 Practice Problem-2
 Find for the circuit

Ω
 Compound (complex) connections
A complex circuit is a circuit that contains components that are neither in parallel nor

in series.
In such a circuit it is not possible to reduce the components into series or parallel

configuration.
In such circuits resistors may be connected in triangle form called delta, or in Y form

called star connection.

Therefore, such circuits can be simplified by converting one type to another depending

on the circuit nature.

71
Cont…
Converting from one configuration to the other is called star-delta (Y-Δ)

conversion or delta-star (Δ-Y) conversion.

 Star-delta transformation
The 3-phase networks have three wires and usually the networks are connected

in star and delta configuration.

The 3 phase supply or the load connected in either formation can be converted

into its equivalent counterpart.

We use such conversion to simplify the mathematical calculations required for

circuit analysis of a complex electrical network.

73
Cont.
These are the wye (Y) or tee (T) network shown in figure below and the delta (
) or pi ( ) network shown in figure below.
These networks occur by themselves or as part of a larger network.
They are used in three-phase networks, electrical filters, and matching
networks.
 Delta to Wye Conversion
Suppose it is more convenient to work with a wye network in a place where
the circuit contains a delta configuration.
We superimpose a wye network on the existing delta network and find the
equivalent resistances in the wye network.
To obtain the equivalent resistances in the wye network, we compare the two
networks and make sure that the resistance between each pair of nodes in the
(or ) network is the same as the resistance between the same pair of nodes in
the Y (or T) network. For terminals 1 and 2 in figures above, for example,
Cont.
 Wye to Delta Conversion
Similarly, if we solve for Ra, Rb, and Rc, we obtain

For the balanced case where R1=R2=R3 and Ra=Rb =Rc, under this condition the
equations becomes,

77
 Example-5
Q5. Convert the network in Fig.1 (a) to an equivalent Y network.

Figure 1: (a) original network, (b) Y equivalent network.

 Practice Problem-3
 A delta-section of resistors is given in figure. Convert this into an equivalent
star-section.
 Capacitor
Capacitor is an electronic component that stores electric charge.

A capacitor is a circuit element that consists of two conducting surfaces

separated by a non-conducting or dielectric material.

The plates accumulate electric charge when connected to power source.

One plate accumulates positive charge and the other plate accumulates

negative charge.
The capacitance is the amount of electric charge that is stored in the capacitor

at voltage of 1 Volt.
Therefore, the capacitance C=Q/V.
Capacitors Symbol
 Capacitance
The capacitance (C) of the plates capacitor is equal to the permittivity (ε)
times the plate area (A) divided by the gap or distance between the plates (d):
The capacitance is calculated as,
Where A represents the area d is distance
and is the permittivity of free space
 The unit of capacitance is the farad (F).

 The usual unit of capacitance is micro farad (μF).

 Permittivity
 Permittivity is classified as absolute and relative permittivity.

Absolute permittivity (𝜺) is the ratio of electric flux density to the electric field

strength.
The absolute permittivity of free space (vacuum) denoted as 𝜀𝑜 and its value is

8.854x10-12 F/m.
All dielectric materials have their own absolute permittivity. The higher the

permittivity the better the material to be used to make dielectric materials.

Relative permittivity(𝜀𝑟) is the ratio of absolute permittivity of any dielectric

material to that of free space. i.e, 𝜀𝑟= 𝜀/𝜀𝑜.

83
Relative permittivity of dielectric materials

84
 Inductor
An inductor, also called a coil or reactor, is a passive two-terminal electrical

component which resists changes in electric current passing through it.

The inductor is a dynamic circuit element involving the time variation of the

magnetic field produced by a current.

It consists of a conductor such as a wire, usually wound into a coil. Energy is

stored in a magnetic field in the coil as long as current flows.

Inductors are coils of various dimensions designed to introduce specified

amounts of inductance into a circuit.

The inductance of a coil varies directly with the magnetic properties of the coil.

85
Cont.
Ferromagnetic materials, therefore, are frequently employed to
increase the inductance by increasing the flux linking the coil.
An inductor is characterized by its inductance (L), the ratio of the
voltage to the rate of change of current, which has units of
Henries (H). The usual unit of inductance is millihenry (mH).
Inductance is the property of an electrical conductor by which a
change in current flowing through it induces an electromotive
force in the conductor itself.

86
Inductors symbol
 Inductance(L)
The inductance is calculated as

where N is the number of turns,

is the length, A is the cross-sectional area,
and is the permeability of the core.

 The unit of inductance is the henry (H).

 Permeability
 In electromagnetism, permeability is the measure of the ability of a material to

support the formation of a magnetic field within itself.

 Magnetic permeability is typically represented by the Greek letter µ.

 The permeability of a material (𝜇) can be expressed as the product of relative

permeability and absolute permeability of free space.

 𝜇=𝜇𝑟𝜇𝑜 where 𝜇𝑜 is the permeability of free space, whose value is 4π×10−7 H/m.

89
Relative permeability of materials

90
 Chapter-Three
Electric circuit laws &
analysis techniques
 Lecture Content
 Ohm’s law, Kirchhoff’s law

 Nodal Analysis, Loop analysis

 Source Transformation, Linearity and

Superposition
 Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems

 Maximum power transfer

 Network Analysis
 Network Analysis set upon two set of law

1. Element Law: relates to terminal voltage and current of individual

element.

Example: Ohm’s law

2. Connection law: relates the voltage and current shared at the

interconnection.

Example: Kirchhoff's law

 Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s law states that the voltage v across a resistor is directly proportional to
the current i flowing through the resistor.
That is,
A short circuit is a circuit element with resistance approaching zero.
An open circuit is a circuit element with resistance approaching infinity.
 Nodes, Branches, and Loops
Since the elements of an electric circuit can be interconnected in several ways,
we need to understand some basic concepts of network topology.
To differentiate between a circuit and a network, we may regard a network as
an interconnection of elements or devices, whereas a circuit is a network
providing one or more closed paths.
A network with b branches, n nodes, and l independent loops will satisfy the
fundamental theorem of network topology:
 Branch
A branch represents a single element such as a voltage source, electric source
or a resistor.
 Node
A node is the point of connection between two or more branches.
 Loop
A loop is any closed path in a circuit.

An independent loop is one that contains at least one element not contained in
another loop.
A network satisfies the fundamental theorem of network topology.

# branches = # loops + # nodes - 1

 Practice Problem
P1. Give the number of
• branches
• nodes
• loops
 Kirchhoff’s Laws
Ohm’s law by itself is not sufficient to analyze circuits.
However, when it is coupled with Kirchhoff’s two laws, we have a sufficient,
powerful set of tools for analyzing a large variety of electric circuits.
Kirchhoff’s laws were first introduced in 1847 by the German physicist
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824–1887).
These laws are formally known as Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) and
Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL).
Kirchhoff’s first law is based on the law of conservation of charge, which
requires that the algebraic sum of charges within a system cannot change.
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law
Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of currents
entering a node (or a closed boundary) is zero.

∑ i n =0
n =1

The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the currents
leaving the node.
i 1 +i 3 +i 4 =i 2 +i 5
Parallel Current
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of all voltages
around a closed path ( or loop) is zero.

∑ v m =0
m=1

Sum of voltage drops = Sum of voltage rises

v 2 +v 3+ v 5 = v 1+ v 4
 KVL
The voltage encountered from + to – is positive
The voltage encountered from - to + is negative

,
Applying KVL across the loop
Series Voltage
 Example-1
 For the circuit as shown in Fig. below (a), find voltages v1 and v2.
 Example-2
 Determine vo and i in the circuit shown in Fig. below (a).
 Practice Problem
P2. Find currents and voltages in the circuit shown in Figure below.
 Voltage Divider Rule

To determine the voltage across each resistor in Figure above.

Current Divider Rule
 Example-3
 Find and in the circuit shown in Fig. (a). Calculate the power dissipated in the
3- resistor.
 Practice Problem
P3. For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.45, find: (a) and (b) the power dissipated in
the 3-kΩ and 20-kΩ resistors, and (c) the power supplied by the current source.
 Nodal Analysis

Nodal analysis provides a general procedure for analyzing circuits using node

voltages as the circuit variables.

Nodal analysis is more commonly used than mesh or loop analysis for analyzing

networks.
It can be used to determine the unknown node voltages of both planar and non-

planar circuits.
Choosing node voltages instead of element voltages as circuit variables is

convenient and reduces the number of equations one must solve simultaneously.
Nodal analysis is also known as the node-voltage method.
 Steps to determine node voltages

1) Select a node as the reference node. Assign voltages to the remaining n-1

nodes. The voltages are referenced with respect to the reference node.

2) Apply KCL to each of the n-1 nonreference nodes. Use Ohm’s law to

express the branch currents in terms of node voltages.

3) Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the unknown node

voltages.
 Aim of Nodal Analysis
The aim of nodal analysis is to determine the voltage at each node relative
to the reference node (or ground).
Once you have done this you can easily work out anything else you need.
Current flows from a higher potential to a lower potential in a resistor.
We can express this principle as
 Example-4
 Calculate the node voltages in the circuit shown in Fig.(a) below.
 Example-5
 Determine the voltages at the nodes in Fig. (a).
 Practical Problem
P4. Obtain the node voltages in the circuit of Figure below.
 Nodal Analysis With Voltage Sources
Consider the following two possibilities.
Case 1: If a voltage source is connected between the reference node and a
nonreference node, we simply set the voltage at the nonreference node equal to
the voltage of the voltage source. In Fig. 3.7, for example, V1=10V
Cont.
Case 2: If the voltage source (dependent or independent) is connected between

two nonreference nodes, the two nonreference nodes form a generalized node
or supernode; we apply both KCL and KVL to determine the node voltages.

A supernode is formed by enclosing a (dependent or independent) voltage

source connected between two nonreference nodes and any elements

connected in parallel with it.
Note the following properties of a supernode:

1. The voltage source inside the supernode provides a constraint equation

needed to solve for the node voltages.

2. A supernode has no voltage of its own.

3. A supernode requires the application of both KCL and KVL.

 Example-6
 For the circuit shown in Figure below, find the node voltages.
 Example-7
 Find the node voltages in the circuit of Figure below.
 Practice Problem
P5. Find v and i in the circuit of Figure below.
 Mesh Analysis (Loop Analysis)
Mesh analysis is developed by applying KVL around meshes in the circuit.

Loop(mesh) analysis results in a system of linear equations which must be

solved for unknown currents.

Reduces the number of required equations to the number of meshes.

As usual, be careful writing mesh equations follow sign convention.

Cont.
Mesh is a loop which does not contain any other loops within it.

Essential Branch: Path between 2 essential nodes (without crossing other

essential nodes).

Mesh analysis is not quite as general as nodal analysis because it is only

applicable to a circuit that is planar.

A planar circuit is one that can be drawn in a plane with no branches crossing

one another; otherwise it is nonplanar.

 Steps to determine mesh currents

1. Assign mesh currents to the n meshes.

2. Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use Ohm’s law to express the voltages

in terms of the mesh currents.

3. Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to get the mesh currents.

Cont.
Identifying the meshes
Assigning mesh currents
Voltages from mesh currents
Mesh – Current Equations
 Mesh – Current Method Cases
Case I: When a current source exists only in one mesh.
 Super Mesh
Case II: When a current source exists between two meshes.
Cont.
Case III: Mesh with dependent sources.
 Example
P1. Use the mesh current method to find
Solution
Cont..
SOURCE TRANSFORMATION
LINEARITY AND
SUPERPOSITION
THEVENIN’S AND NORTON’S THEOREMS
MAXIMUM POWER
TRANSFER
SOURCE TRANSFORMATION
𝑣 𝑠
𝑖 𝑠 =
𝑅1

𝑣 𝑠 =𝑖 𝑠 𝑅1
SOURCE TRANSFORMATION
(PROOF)
 PRACTICE PROBLEM
 Find Vx and Ix