2 Communication

2.1 Networking
2.1.1 Networking devices
2.1.2 Client-server and peer-to-peer networking models
2.1.3 Network topologies
2.1.4 Public and private cloud computing

2.1.5 Wired and wireless networking

2.1.6 Hardware requirements of networks
2.1.7 Ethernet
2.1.8 Bit streaming
2.2 The internet
2.2.1 The differences between the internet and the World
Wide Web
2.2.2 Hardware and software needed to support the internet
2.2.3 IP addresses
2.2.4 Uniform resource service (URLs)
2.2.5 Domain name service (DNS)
2.2.6 Scripting in HTML
2.1.1 Networking devices

• One of the earliest forms of networking, circa 1970 in the USA, was the Advanced Research Projects
Agency Network (ARPAnet).
• This was an early form of packet switching wide area network (WAN) connecting a number of large
computers in the Department of Defense.
• It later expanded to include university computers.
• It is generally agreed that ARPAnet developed the technical platform for what we now call the internet.
• As personal computers developed through the 1980s, a local network began to appear.
• This became known as a local area network (LAN).
• LANs tended to be much smaller networks (usually inside one building) connecting a number of
computers and shared devices, such as printers.
• WANs typically consist of a number of LANs connected via public communications networks (such as
telephone lines or satellites).
• Because a WAN consists of LANs joined together, it may be a private network, and passwords and
user IDs are required to access it.
• This is in contrast to the internet which is a vast number of decentralised networks and computers
which have a common point of access, so that anyone with access to the internet can connect to
the computers on these networks.
• This makes it intrinsically different to a WAN.
• In recent years, another type of network – a metropolitan area network (MAN) – has emerged. MANs
are larger than LANs as they can connect together many small computer networks (e.g LANs) housed
in different buildings within a city (for example, a university campus).
• MANs are restricted in their size geographically to, for example, a single city.
• In contrast, WANs can cover a much larger geographical area, such as a country or a continent.
• For example, a multi-national company may connect a number of smaller networks together (e.g.
LANs or MANs) to form a world-wide WAN. This is covered in more detail later.
The main benefits of networking computers and devices
(rather than using a number of stand-alone computers):
I. » Devices, such as printers, can be shared (thus reducing costs).
II. » Licences to run software on networks are often far cheaper than buying licences
for an equivalent number of stand-alone computers.
III. » Users can share files and data.
IV. » Access to reliable data that comes from a central source, such as a file server.
V. » Data and files can be backed up centrally at the end of each day.
VI. » Users can communicate using email and instant messaging.
VII. » A network manager can oversee the network and, for example, apply access rights
to certain files, or restrict access to external networks, such as the internet.
The drawbacks of networking :
» Cabling and servers can be
an expensive initial outlay.
» Managing a large network can be a complex and difficult task.
» A breakdown of devices, such as the file servers, can affect the whole network.
» Malware and hacking can affect entire networks (particularly if a LAN is part of a much
larger WAN), although firewalls do afford some protection in this respect.
Networked computers
Networked computers form an infrastructure which enables internal and external
communications to take place.
The infrastructure includes the following:
1. Hardware
» LAN cards
» routers
» switches
» wireless routers
» cabling

2. Software
» operation and management of the network
» operation of firewalls
» security applications/utilities

3. Services
» DSL
» satellite communication channels
» wireless protocols
» IP addressing.
Networks can be categorised as private or public.
Private networks
• are owned by a single company or organisation (they are often LANs or intranets with restricted
user access, for example, passwords and user ids are required to join the network);
• the companies are responsible for the purchase of their own equipment and software, maintenance
of the network and the hiring and training of staff.

Public networks
• are owned by a communications carrier company (such as a telecoms company);
• many organisations will use the network and there are usually no specific password requirements to
enter the network – but sub- networks may be under security management.
WANs and LANs
Local area networks (LANs)
• LANs are usually contained within one building, or within a small geographical area.
• A typical LAN consists of a number of computers and devices (such as printers) connected to hubs or switches.
• One of the hubs or switches is usually connected to a router and/or modem to allow the LAN to connect to the
internet or become part of a wide area network (WAN).

Wireless LANs (WLANs)

• Wireless LANs (WLANs) are similar to LANs but there are no wires or cables
• they provide wireless network communications over fairly short distances (up to 100 metres) using radio or infrared
signals instead of using cables.
• Devices, known as wireless access points (WAPs), are connected into the wired network at fixed locations.
• Because of the limited range, most commercial LANs (such as those on a college campus or at an airport) need
several WAPs to permit uninterrupted wireless communications.
• The WAPs use either spread spectrum technology (which is a wideband radio frequency with a range from a few
metres to 100 metres) or infrared (which has a very short range of about 1 to 2 metres and is easily blocked, and
therefore has limited use;
• The WAP receives and transmits data between the WLAN and the wired network structure.
• End users access the WLAN through wireless LAN adapters which are built into the devices or as a plug in module.
Wide area networks (WANs)
• Wide area networks (WANs) are used when computers or networks are situated a long distance from each
other (for example, they may be in different cities or on different continents).
• If a number of LANs are joined together using a router or modem, they can form a WAN.
• The network of automated teller machines (ATMs) used by banks is one of the most common examples of
the use of a WAN.
• Because of the long distances between devices, WANs usually make use of a public communications
network (such as telephone lines or satellites),
• but they can use dedicated or leased communication lines which can be less expensive and more secure
(less risk of hacking)
• A typical WAN will consist of end systems and intermediate systems, as shown below. 1, 3, 7 and 10 are
known as end systems, and the remainder are known as intermediate systems.
• The distance between each system can be considerable, especially if the WAN is run by a multi-national
company.
A guide for deciding the ‘size’ of a network:
WAN: 100 km to over 1000 km
MAN: 1 km to 100 km
LAN: 10 m to 1000 m
PAN: 1 m to 10 m (this is not a commonly used term – it means personal area
network; in other words, a home system)
 2.1.2 Networking models
Two types of networking models:
1. client-server
2. peer-to-peer.
The client-server model
• uses separate dedicated servers and specific client workstations;
• client computers will be connected to the server computer(s).
» Users are able to access most of the files, which are stored on dedicated servers.
» The server dictates which users are able to access which files. (Note: sharing of data is the most important part
of the client-server model; with peer-to- peer, connectivity is the most important aspect.)
» The client-server model allows the installation of software onto a client’s computer.
» The model uses central security databases which control access to the shared resources. (Note: passwords and
user IDs are required to log into the network.)
» Once a user is logged into the system, they will have access to only those resources (such as a printer) and files
assigned to them by the network administrator, so offers greater security than peer-to-peer networks.
» Client-server networks can be as large as you want them to be and they are much easier to scale up than peer-
to-peer networks.
» A central server looks after the storing, delivery and sending of emails.
» This model offers the most stable system, for example, if someone deletes a shared resource from the server,
the nightly back-up would restore the deleted resource (this is different in peer-to-peer ).
» Client-server networks can become bottlenecked if there are several client requests at the same time.

»
» In the client-server model, a file server is used and is responsible for :
– central storage and management of data files, thus enabling other network users to access files
– allowing users to share information without the need for offline devices (such as a memory stick)
– allowing any computer to be configured as the host machine and act as the file server (note that the server
could be a storage device (such as SSD or HDD) that could also serve as a remote storage device for other
computers, thus allowing them to access this device as if it were a local storage device attached to their
computer).
Examples of use of client-server network model
A company/user would choose a client-server network model for the following reasons.
1. » The company/user has a large user-base (may still be used by a small group of people who are doing
independent projects but need to have sharing of data and access to data outside the group).
2. » Access to network resources needs to be properly controlled.
3. » There is a need for good network security.
4. » The company requires its data to be free from accidental loss (in other words, data needs to be backed up at
a central location).

An example is the company Amazon;

• it uses the client-server network model.
• The user front-end is updated every time a user logs on to the Amazon website and a large server architecture
handles items such as order processing, billing customers and data security;
• none of the Amazon users are aware that other customers are using the website at the same time – there is no
interaction between users and server since they are kept entirely separate at all times.