CONCEPTS

AND
ORGANISATIONAL
BEHAVIOUR
-RAKSHIT PANDEY
 UNIT-1

 FUNDAMENTALS OF MANAGEMENT: MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FROM P

AST TO PRESENT

 DIFFERENT LEVELS OF MANAGEMENT

 MANAGERIAL SKILLS AND MANAGERIAL FUNCTIONS

 PLANNING- OBJECTIVE OF PLANNING, PLANNING PROCESS

 TYPES OF PLANNING, TYPES OF PLANS, MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVE,

DECISION-MAKING- TYPES, PROCESS & TECHNIQUES
 Fundamentals of Management: Management practices from past to
present:
Management practices have evolved significantly over time as organizations and their environments have changed.
Here is an overview of the fundamentals of management and how they have evolved from the past to the present:
Classical Management (Late 19th to early 20th century):
Scientific Management: Developed by Frederick Taylor, it emphasized the use of scientific methods to improve efficiency and
productivity in the workplace. Taylor focused on time and motion studies and advocated for task specialization.
Administrative Management: Proposed by Henri Fayol, it focused on the overall organization and coordination of activities within an
organization. Fayol identified functions of management, including planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating, and controlling.
Human Relations Movement (1920s to 1930s):
The Hawthorne Studies: Conducted at the Western Electric Hawthorne Works, these studies explored the effects of lighting and
working conditions on productivity. They highlighted the importance of social and human factors in the workplace and led to a
greater emphasis on employee motivation and satisfaction.
Management Science and Quantitative Approach (1940s to 1950s):
Operations Research: During World War II, mathematicians and scientists applied quantitative techniques to military operations,
leading to the development of operations research. This approach used mathematical models and statistical analysis to optimize
decision-making and resource allocation.
Contingency Theory (1960s to 1970s):
This theory emphasized that there is no one-size-fits-all approach to management. Instead, effective management practices
depend on the specific circumstances or contingencies. Managers need to adapt their practices to fit the unique characteristics of
each situation.
Total Quality Management (1980s to 1990s):
Total Quality Management (TQM) focused on continuous improvement, customer satisfaction, and employee involvement. It
emphasized the importance of quality in all aspects of an organization and involved processes such as employee empowerment,
benchmarking, and continuous measurement and feedback.
Strategic Management and Globalization (1990s to present):
Strategic Management: Managers began to focus more on long-term planning and aligning
organizational goals with external opportunities and threats. Strategic management involves
formulating and implementing strategies to achieve a competitive advantage.
Globalization: The increasing interconnectedness of the global economy has required managers to
adapt their practices to operate effectively in diverse cultural and market environments. Globalization
has led to greater emphasis on cross-cultural management, international collaboration, and global
strategies.
Contemporary Approaches (Present):
Agile Management: With the rise of technology and rapidly changing markets, agile management
has gained popularity. It emphasizes flexibility, adaptability, and collaboration, allowing organizations
to quickly respond to customer needs and market dynamics.
Ethical and Sustainable Management: In recent years, there has been growing awareness and
emphasis on ethical and sustainable practices in management. Organizations are expected to consider
social and environmental impacts and incorporate responsible practices into their operations.
These are some of the key management practices that have evolved over time. It’s important
to note that management theories and practices continue to evolve as new challenges and
opportunities emerge in the business landscape.
 Different levels of management:
There are typically three levels of management within an organization, each with its own
responsibilities and scope of authority. These levels of management are:
Top-Level Management:
Also known as senior or executive management, this level consists of the highest-ranking executives,
such as CEOs, presidents, and board members.
Responsibilities: Top-level managers are responsible for setting the overall direction, vision, and goals of
the organization. They make major strategic decisions, establish policies, and allocate resources. They
are also responsible for representing the organization to external stakeholders.
Middle-Level Management:
Middle-level managers are responsible for implementing the strategies and policies developed by top-
level management.
Responsibilities: They oversee specific departments, divisions, or functional areas within the
organization. They translate the goals and strategies from top-level management into actionable plans,
set departmental objectives, allocate resources, and coordinate activities within their areas of
responsibility. They also act as a liaison between top-level management and lower-level employees.
Lower-Level Management (First-Line Management):
Also known as supervisory or operational management, this level comprises supervisors, team leaders,
and other individuals who directly manage the frontline employees.
 Responsibilities:
Lower-level managers are responsible for overseeing day-to-day operations, ensuring
that tasks are performed efficiently and according to established standards. They
assign work, provide guidance and support to employees, monitor performance, and
make operational decisions to achieve departmental goals. They are the closest to the
operational activities and serve as a link between top-level management and non-
managerial employees.
 It’s important to note that the number of management levels can vary depending on
the size and complexity of the organization. In larger organizations, there may be
additional layers of management between the top and lower levels to facilitate
effective coordination and communication.
 Each level of management requires different skills, competencies, and perspectives.
Top-level managers need strategic thinking, leadership, and decision-making abilities.
Middle-level managers require strong communication, coordination, and problem-
solving skills. Lower-level managers should possess good interpersonal skills, the ability
to motivate and supervise employees, and a deep understanding of operational
processes.
 Effective collaboration and coordination between these management levels are crucial
for the success of an organization, as they ensure alignment between the strategic
objectives and the execution of tasks at different organizational levels.
 Managerial skills and Managerial Functions:
Managerial Skills: Managers require a range of skills to effectively perform their roles and responsibilities.
These skills can be categorized into three main categories:
Technical Skills: Technical skills are the specialized knowledge and expertise required to perform specific tasks
or activities. They are particularly important for lower-level managers who oversee operational activities.
Technical skills can include proficiency in areas such as finance, marketing, operations, information technology,
engineering, or any other specific field relevant to the organization.
Human Skills: Human skills, also known as interpersonal skills or people skills, involve the ability to interact,
communicate, and work effectively with others. These skills are essential for building and maintaining positive
relationships, motivating employees, resolving conflicts, and fostering a collaborative work environment. Human
skills are important at all levels of management.
Conceptual Skills: Conceptual skills involve the ability to think strategically, analyze complex situations, and
make sound decisions. Managers with strong conceptual skills can see the bigger picture, understand the
organization’s goals and objectives, and identify opportunities and challenges. These skills are particularly
important for top-level managers who are responsible for setting the organization’s direction and making
strategic decisions.
Managerial Functions: The managerial functions represent the key activities that managers perform to achieve
organizational goals and ensure the effective functioning of their departments or areas of responsibility. The four
primary managerial functions, as proposed by Henri Fayol, are:
Planning: Planning involves setting goals, defining objectives, and determining the course of action to achieve
them. Managers engage in strategic planning to establish long-term objectives and formulate strategies, as well
as operational planning to define short-term goals and action plans. Planning also involves forecasting, resource
allocation, and setting performance targets.
Organizing: Organizing is the process of arranging resources, tasks, and activities to achieve
organizational objectives. It involves designing the organizational structure, establishing
relationships, assigning roles and responsibilities, and creating systems and processes for
coordination and communication. Managers at all levels organize their departments or teams to
ensure efficient workflow and optimal resource utilization.
Leading: Leading involves influencing, motivating, and directing employees to achieve
organizational goals. It includes activities such as providing guidance and support, communicating
expectations, motivating and inspiring employees, resolving conflicts, and promoting teamwork.
Effective leadership is crucial for creating a positive work culture and maximizing employee
performance and engagement.
Controlling: Controlling involves monitoring performance, comparing actual results with planned
objectives, and taking corrective actions as needed. It includes establishing performance standards,
measuring performance, analyzing variances, and implementing appropriate adjustments. Controlling
helps managers ensure that activities are on track and aligned with organizational goals and
standards.
It’s important to note that these managerial functions are not performed in isolation but are
interconnected and iterative. Managers continuously engage in these functions to adapt to changing
circumstances, ensure effective performance, and achieve organizational success.
Objective of planning:
The objective of planning is to establish a roadmap for achieving specific goals and objectives within a given
timeframe. Planning involves determining the actions, resources, and strategies required to accomplish desired
outcomes. It helps individuals, organizations, and communities to be proactive in anticipating future needs and
challenges, and to make informed decisions to achieve their desired outcomes effectively and efficiently.
Planning process:
The planning process typically involves several key steps, which may vary depending on the context and scope of the
planning effort. Here is a general outline of the planning process:
Defining goals and objectives:
The first step in the planning process is to clearly define the goals and objectives that the planning effort aims to
achieve. These goals should be specific, measurable, attainable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART).
Gathering information:
The next step involves gathering relevant information and data to inform the planning process. This may include
conducting research, collecting data on existing conditions, and analyzing trends and patterns.
Analyzing the situation:
Once the information is collected, it needs to be analyzed to gain insights into the current situation, identify strengths,
weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT analysis), and understand any constraints or challenges that may
impact the planning process.
Developing alternative strategies:
Based on the analysis, various alternative strategies or courses of action are developed. These strategies should align
with the goals and objectives defined earlier and consider the resources available.
Evaluating alternatives:
The alternative strategies are then evaluated based on their feasibility, potential outcomes, risks, and alignment with
the goals and objectives. This evaluation helps in selecting the most appropriate strategy or combination of
strategies.
Decision-making:
Once the alternatives are evaluated, a decision is made regarding the preferred strategy or
strategies to be pursued. This decision-making process may involve weighing the pros and cons,
considering trade-offs, and involving stakeholders or decision-makers.
Formulating the plan:
The chosen strategy is then formulated into a detailed plan that outlines the specific actions,
tasks, timelines, responsibilities, and resources required to achieve the desired goals and
objectives. The plan should be clear, concise, and actionable.
Implementing the plan:
The plan is put into action by allocating resources, assigning responsibilities, and executing the
defined tasks and actions. Effective communication and coordination are crucial during the
implementation phase.
Monitoring and evaluation:
Throughout the implementation process, progress is continuously monitored against the
established milestones and targets. This helps in identifying any deviations or challenges and
taking corrective actions as needed. Regular evaluation ensures that the plan remains on track
and effective.
Reviewing and adjusting:
As the implementation progresses and circumstances change, it is important to periodically
review the plan’s effectiveness and make necessary adjustments. This allows for flexibility and
adaptability to emerging opportunities or unforeseen challenges.
By following a systematic planning process, individuals, organizations, and communities can
 Objective

Types of planning:
Strategic planning:
Strategic planning involves long-term planning and setting overall goals and strategies to guide an
organization or business. It focuses on the organization’s vision, mission, and objectives and involves
making decisions about resource allocation and competitive positioning.
Tactical planning:
Tactical planning is shorter-term planning that translates the strategic goals and objectives into specific
actions and plans. It focuses on implementing the strategic plans at the operational level and involves
determining the resources, tasks, and timelines required to achieve specific outcomes.
Operational planning:
Operational planning is the most detailed and immediate form of planning. It involves planning for day-to-
day activities and specific tasks within an organization. Operational plans are developed to ensure that
routine tasks and processes are executed efficiently and effectively.
Contingency planning:
Contingency planning involves developing alternative plans and strategies to address unexpected events
or crises. It aims to anticipate potential risks and develop response mechanisms to mitigate the impact of
unforeseen circumstances.
Financial planning:
Financial planning focuses on managing and allocating financial resources effectively. It involves budgeting,
forecasting financial needs, and developing financial strategies to achieve financial goals and objectives.
Types of plans:
Strategic plans:
Strategic plans outline the long-term goals and strategies of an organization. They provide a roadmap
for achieving the organization’s mission and vision and typically cover a period of three to five years or
more.
Business plans:
Business plans are comprehensive documents that outline the objectives, strategies, and operations of
a specific business venture. They include details about the target market, products or services,
marketing and sales strategies, financial projections, and operational plans.
Operational plans:
Operational plans are detailed plans that focus on the day-to-day activities and tasks within an
organization. They specify the actions, responsibilities, timelines, and resources required to achieve
specific operational objectives.
Project plans:
Project plans are specific plans developed for managing individual projects. They outline the project
objectives, scope, timelines, deliverables, resources needed, and the overall approach for executing
and monitoring the project.
Contingency plans:
Contingency plans are alternative plans developed to address potential risks, crises, or unexpected
events. They outline the actions and procedures to be followed in case of emergencies or disruptions to
ensure business continuity.
Management by Objectives (MBO):
Management by Objectives is an approach to management and leadership that focuses on setting
clear and specific objectives for individuals and teams. It involves the following key steps:
Goal setting:
Managers and employees collaborate to set specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-
bound (SMART) objectives that align with the organization’s overall goals and strategies.
Action planning:
Once the objectives are set, action plans are developed to determine the tasks, resources, and
timelines required to achieve the objectives.
Performance review:
Regular performance reviews are conducted to assess progress towards the objectives. Managers
provide feedback, identify any issues or challenges, and offer support to employees as needed.
Performance appraisal:
At the end of the evaluation period, performance is appraised based on the achievement of
objectives. Feedback is provided, and rewards or incentives may be given based on the results.
 MBO promotes clarity, alignment, and employee engagement by involving them in the goal-
setting process and creating a results-oriented culture. It helps in improving communication,
focus, and accountability within an organization.
 techniques:
Decision-making is the process of selecting the best course of action among various alternatives.
There are different types of decision-making, each with its own process and techniques. Here are
the common types of decision-making, along with their processes and techniques:
1.Rational decision-making:
Process: The rational decision-making process follows a logical and systematic approach, involving the
following steps:
1. Identifying the problem or decision to be made.
2. Gathering relevant information and data.
3. Identifying alternatives.
4. Evaluating and comparing the alternatives based on criteria and objectives.
5. Selecting the best alternative.
6. Implementing the chosen alternative.
7. Evaluating the outcomes and making adjustments if needed.

Techniques: Rational decision-making often involves quantitative analysis, cost-benefit analysis, decision
trees, and decision matrices to evaluate and compare alternatives objectively.
2.Intuitive decision-making:
Process: Intuitive decision-making relies on instinct, gut feeling, or unconscious reasoning rather than a formal
analysis.
1. Recognizing the problem or decision to be made.
2. Drawing upon personal experience, expertise, and intuition.
3. Identifying and evaluating possible alternatives.
4. Making a decision based on intuition.
5. Reflecting on the decision and its outcomes.

Techniques: Techniques to enhance intuitive decision-making include mindfulness, reflection, and seeking
diverse perspectives.
3.Behavioral decision-making:
Process: Behavioral decision-making acknowledges that humans are influenced by biases, emotions, and social
factors in their decision-making process.
6. Identifying the problem or decision to be made.
7. Analyzing potential biases and emotions that may affect the decision.
8. Considering social and cultural influences.
9. Making the decision while being aware of biases and emotions.
10. Evaluating the outcomes and learning from the experience.

Techniques: Techniques to mitigate biases include decision-making frameworks like red teaming, devil’s
advocacy, and scenario planning.
4.Group decision-making:
Process: Group decision-making involves multiple individuals collaborating to make a decision.
1. Identifying the problem or decision to be made.
2. Generating alternatives through brainstorming or other creative techniques.
3. Evaluating and discussing the alternatives as a group.
4. Facilitating consensus or reaching a decision through voting, compromise, or negotiation.
5. Implementing the chosen decision.
6. Evaluating the outcomes collectively.

Techniques: Techniques such as SWOT analysis, multi-voting, Delphi method, and nominal group technique can
facilitate effective group decision-making.
5.Incremental decision-making:
Process: Incremental decision-making involves making small, gradual adjustments based on existing decisions or
established routines.
7. Building on past decisions or routines.
8. Identifying incremental changes or adjustments.
9. Implementing the changes.
10. Evaluating the outcomes and making further adjustments.

Techniques: Techniques such as continuous improvement, feedback loops, and small-scale experiments support
incremental decision-making.
It’s important to note that the decision-making process and techniques used can vary depending on the
context, complexity, and urgency of the decision. Decision-makers may employ a combination of these
approaches or adapt them to suit specific situations.
 UNIT-2

 Organising & Staffing- Types of organization

 Organization structure and decentralization of authority
 Meaning of staffing, Recruitment, selection & placement, Trai
ning & development
 Directing & Controlling- Principle of directing
 Essence of coordination, Different control techniques, Manag
ement by exception.
Organising & Staffing- Types of organization
 There are several types of organizational structures commonly found in businesses and other
entities. The choice of organizational structure depends on factors such as the size of the
organization, its goals, the nature of its operations, and the desired level of formality and control.
Here are some common types of organizational structures:
1.Functional Organization: In a functional organization, employees are grouped based on their
functional areas or departments, such as finance, marketing, operations, human resources, and so
on. Each department is responsible for specific tasks related to its function. This structure promotes
specialization and efficiency within each department.
2.Divisional Organization: In a divisional organization, the company is divided into self-contained
divisions based on product lines, geographic regions, or customer segments. Each division operates
as a separate entity with its own functions, such as marketing, finance, and operations. This
structure allows for greater flexibility and responsiveness to specific market conditions.
3.Matrix Organization: A matrix organization combines elements of both functional and divisional
structures. Employees are assigned to cross-functional teams or projects, while also reporting to a
functional manager. This structure promotes collaboration, information sharing, and flexibility, but
can create challenges in terms of role clarity and coordination.
4.Flat Organization: A flat organization has few or no levels of management between top-level
executives and employees. It emphasizes a decentralized decision-making process and promotes
a more egalitarian and collaborative work environment. This structure is often found in small
businesses and startups.
5.Hierarchical Organization: A hierarchical organization has a well-defined chain of command
with multiple levels of management. Decision-making authority flows from top to bottom, and
employees report to specific supervisors or managers. This structure provides clear lines of
authority, accountability, and control but can result in slower decision-making and reduced
flexibility.
6.Network Organization: A network organization is a flexible and decentralized structure that
relies on strategic alliances, partnerships, and outsourcing to accomplish its goals. It focuses on
collaboration and leveraging external expertise and resources. This structure is common in
industries where flexibility and innovation are crucial, such as technology and creative sectors.
7.Virtual Organization: A virtual organization operates primarily through digital platforms,
with a geographically dispersed workforce collaborating remotely. It relies heavily on technology
to facilitate communication, coordination, and collaboration. This structure is increasingly
common in the age of remote work and digital connectivity.
 It’s important to note that organizations can have hybrid or customized structures that
combine elements from multiple types to suit their unique needs and circumstances. The
choice of organizational structure should align with the organization’s goals, culture, and
operating environment.
Organization structure and decentralization of
authority:
 Organization structure refers to the way an organization is designed and organized, including
how roles, responsibilities, and authority are distributed and coordinated. Decentralization of
authority, on the other hand, refers to the extent to which decision-making authority is dispersed
throughout the organization rather than concentrated at the top.
The organization structure and decentralization of authority are closely related. The choice of
organization structure can influence the degree of decentralization within an organization. Here are
a few key points to understand the relationship between organization structure and
decentralization of authority:
1.Centralized Authority: In a centralized organization structure, decision-making authority is
concentrated at the top, typically with senior management or a central executive team. Centralized
authority allows for quick decision-making, clear lines of command, and consistent implementation
of policies and procedures. However, it can limit autonomy and creativity at lower levels of the
organization.
2.Decentralized Authority: In a decentralized organization structure, decision-making authority
is distributed among various levels and units of the organization. Lower-level managers and
employees have more autonomy and responsibility to make decisions within their areas of
expertise. Decentralization promotes faster decision-making, fosters innovation and employee
empowerment, and allows for greater flexibility in responding to local needs and market conditions.
3.Hybrid Structures: Many organizations adopt hybrid structures that combine elements of
centralization and decentralization. For example, an organization may have centralized decision-
making for strategic issues while decentralizing decision-making for operational or local matters.
Hybrid structures allow organizations to benefit from both centralized control and decentralized
empowerment.
4.Span of Control: The span of control refers to the number of employees or subordinates that a
manager directly supervises. In a centralized organization with a narrow span of control, managers
have limited subordinates, resulting in a more hierarchical structure. In contrast, a decentralized
organization often has a wider span of control, with managers overseeing larger teams, promoting
a flatter organizational structure.
5.Communication and Coordination: The degree of decentralization affects communication and
coordination within an organization. In a decentralized structure, communication channels tend to
be more fluid and direct, allowing for faster information flow and collaboration. However,
coordination may require more effort to align diverse decision-making processes and ensure
coherence across different units.
 It’s important to note that the level of decentralization can vary across different functions or
areas within an organization. Some functions may require a higher level of centralization due to
the need for standardized processes, compliance, or strategic decision-making, while others
may benefit from decentralization to promote agility and innovation.
MEANING OF STAFFING,RECRUITMENT,SELECTION &
PLACEMENT, TRAINING & DEVELOPMENT:
Staffing: Staffing refers to the process of acquiring, deploying, and managing employees within an
organization to ensure that the right individuals with the necessary skills and qualifications are in the right
positions at the right time. It involves activities such as workforce planning, job analysis, recruitment,
selection, placement, and retention of employees.
Recruitment: Recruitment is the process of attracting, sourcing, and identifying potential candidates for job
vacancies within an organization. It involves various activities such as job posting, advertising, resume
screening, conducting interviews, and evaluating candidates. The goal of recruitment is to attract a pool of
qualified candidates who can be considered for available positions.
Selection and Placement: Selection and placement are closely related processes that follow recruitment.
Selection involves assessing and evaluating candidates to determine their suitability for a particular job
based on their qualifications, skills, experience, and other relevant factors. It may include further interviews,
tests, assessments, and reference checks. Placement, on the other hand, refers to the process of assigning
the selected candidate to a specific job or position within the organization.
Training and Development: Training and development refer to the activities and programs designed to
enhance the knowledge, skills, and abilities of employees in order to improve their performance, productivity,
and overall effectiveness in their current or future roles. Training typically focuses on acquiring specific skills
or knowledge related to a particular job or task, while development aims to foster the long-term growth and
career advancement of employees. These programs can include workshops, seminars, on-the-job training,
mentoring, coaching, and other learning interventions. The goal is to continuously develop employees’
capabilities and enable them to adapt to changing organizational needs.
Directing & Controlling- Principle of directing
Directing and controlling are important functions of management that involve guiding, influencing, and
supervising employees to achieve organizational goals. The principle of directing focuses on providing
clear guidance and leadership to employees, ensuring effective communication, motivating and
inspiring them, and coordinating their efforts towards the accomplishment of organizational objectives.
Here are some key principles of directing:
1.Unity of Direction: This principle emphasizes the need for a unified direction in which all
employees’ efforts are aligned towards the same goals and objectives. It ensures that everyone is
working towards a common purpose, minimizing conflicts and promoting cooperation.
2.Leadership: Effective leadership is essential for directing employees. Leaders provide guidance,
inspiration, and motivation to their team members. They set a positive example, establish clear
expectations, and create a supportive work environment that encourages employees to perform at
their best.
3.Effective Communication: Clear and open communication is crucial for effective directing.
Managers should provide clear instructions, share information, and actively listen to employees’
feedback and concerns. Effective communication helps in avoiding misunderstandings, promoting
teamwork, and maintaining a positive work environment.
4.Motivation: Motivating employees is an important aspect of directing. Managers should understand
individual needs and use various motivational techniques to inspire employees to perform at their
best. This can include recognition, rewards, career development opportunities, and providing a sense
of purpose and meaning in their work.
5.Supervision and Coordination: Directing involves supervising employees’ work, providing
guidance, and ensuring that tasks are performed efficiently and effectively. Managers need to
coordinate the efforts of different individuals and teams to ensure smooth workflow and the
achievement of organizational objectives.
6.Flexibility: While providing direction, managers should be flexible and adaptable to changing
circumstances. They should be able to adjust their plans, provide feedback, and make necessary
changes to keep employees focused on the desired outcomes.
7.Continuous Monitoring and Feedback: Managers should continuously monitor employees’
performance, provide constructive feedback, and make necessary interventions to keep them on
track. Regular performance evaluations and feedback sessions help employees understand their
strengths, areas for improvement, and align their efforts with organizational goals.
 The principle of directing aims to guide employees towards achieving organizational objectives
by providing leadership, effective communication, motivation, supervision, and coordination. It
plays a crucial role in aligning individual efforts with the overall goals of the organization and
ensuring efficient and effective performance.
Directing & Controlling- Principle of directing
o Directing and controlling are important functions of management that involve guiding, influencing, and
supervising employees to achieve organizational goals. The principle of directing focuses on providing
clear guidance and leadership to employees, ensuring effective communication, motivating and inspiring
them, and coordinating their efforts towards the accomplishment of organizational objectives.
o Here are some key principles of directing:
1.Unity of Direction: This principle emphasizes the need for a unified direction in which all employees’
efforts are aligned towards the same goals and objectives. It ensures that everyone is working towards a
common purpose, minimizing conflicts and promoting cooperation.
2.Leadership: Effective leadership is essential for directing employees. Leaders provide guidance,
inspiration, and motivation to their team members. They set a positive example, establish clear
expectations, and create a supportive work environment that encourages employees to perform at their
best.
3.Effective Communication: Clear and open communication is crucial for effective directing. Managers
should provide clear instructions, share information, and actively listen to employees’ feedback and
concerns. Effective communication helps in avoiding misunderstandings, promoting teamwork, and
maintaining a positive work environment.
4.Motivation: Motivating employees is an important aspect of directing. Managers should understand
individual needs and use various motivational techniques to inspire employees to perform at their best.
This can include recognition, rewards, career development opportunities, and providing a sense of purpose
and meaning in their work.
5.Supervision and Coordination: Directing involves supervising employees’ work, providing
guidance, and ensuring that tasks are performed efficiently and effectively. Managers need to
coordinate the efforts of different individuals and teams to ensure smooth workflow and the
achievement of organizational objectives.
6.Flexibility: While providing direction, managers should be flexible and adaptable to changing
circumstances. They should be able to adjust their plans, provide feedback, and make necessary
changes to keep employees focused on the desired outcomes.
7.Continuous Monitoring and Feedback: Managers should continuously monitor employees’
performance, provide constructive feedback, and make necessary interventions to keep them on
track. Regular performance evaluations and feedback sessions help employees understand their
strengths, areas for improvement, and align their efforts with organizational goals.
 The principle of directing aims to guide employees towards achieving organizational objectives
by providing leadership, effective communication, motivation, supervision, and coordination. It
plays a crucial role in aligning individual efforts with the overall goals of the organization and
ensuring efficient and effective performance.
Essence of coordination, Different control techniques,
Management by exception:
Essence of Coordination:
Coordination is the process of integrating and harmonizing the activities and efforts of individuals and departments
within an organization to ensure that they work towards a common goal. It involves creating synergy, promoting
collaboration, and minimizing conflicts and duplication of efforts. The essence of coordination lies in achieving unity
of action, maximizing efficiency, and facilitating effective communication and cooperation among various parts of
the organization. Coordination helps in streamlining operations, improving productivity, and enhancing overall
organizational performance.
Different Control Techniques: Control techniques are tools and methods used by managers to monitor, measure,
and regulate the performance and progress of organizational activities.
Here are some different control techniques commonly used in management:
1.Bureaucratic Control: Bureaucratic control relies on establishing rules, policies, procedures, and hierarchical
structures to ensure compliance and standardization. It involves detailed job descriptions, performance evaluations,
and a formal chain of command. Bureaucratic control is often associated with traditional, hierarchical organizations.
2.Market Control: Market control involves using market mechanisms to regulate and influence the behavior of
individuals and departments within an organization. It includes techniques such as pricing, competition, market
forces, and customer feedback to incentivize performance and achieve desired outcomes.
3.Clan Control: Clan control is based on creating a culture of shared values, norms, and beliefs within an
organization. It relies on social influence, peer pressure, and self-regulation to guide employee behavior and ensure
adherence to organizational objectives. Clan control emphasizes teamwork, collaboration, and a sense of belonging.
4.Output Control: Output control focuses on measuring and evaluating the results and
outcomes of organizational activities. It involves setting performance targets, key performance
indicators (KPIs), and benchmarks to assess the achievement of goals. Output control is
outcome-oriented and emphasizes accountability for results.
5.Process Control: Process control focuses on monitoring and managing the activities and
processes involved in achieving organizational goals. It involves defining and standardizing
workflows, analyzing process efficiency, and implementing continuous improvement methods.
Process control aims to optimize operations and enhance performance at each stage of the
process.
Management by Exception: Management by exception is a control technique that involves
focusing management attention on significant deviations or exceptions from predetermined
standards or plans. Instead of closely monitoring every detail, managers concentrate on handling
and addressing only those situations that fall outside the normal range. The key idea behind
management by exception is that managers should intervene and take action when there are
significant deviations that may impact the achievement of goals or require corrective measures.
 UNIT- 3

 Fundamentals of individual behavior, Personality, types of personality

 personality, Personal effectiveness, meaning of Attitudes, Types, Components

 Components, attitude formation and attitude change. Meaning & Type of Group
Behavior

 Interpersonal skills, Transactional Analysis, Johari Window

 Fundamentals of Individual Behavior ,PERSONALITY,TYPES OF
PERSONALITY:
 The fundamentals of individual behavior in the context of organizational behavior include various factors
that influence how individuals behave in the workplace. These fundamentals help understand and predict
employee behavior, motivation, and performance.
Some key fundamentals of individual behavior are:
1. Personality: Personality traits, values, and attitudes play a significant role in shaping individual behavior.
They influence how individuals perceive and respond to their work environment, interact with others, and
approach tasks.
2. Perception: Perception refers to how individuals interpret and make sense of the information they receive
from their environment. It affects their understanding of events, people, and situations, which in turn
influences their behavior and decision-making.
3. Motivation: Motivation is the driving force that directs and energizes individual behavior. Different
motivational factors such as intrinsic rewards, extrinsic rewards, recognition, and career advancement can
influence an individual’s level of motivation and performance.
4. Attitudes and Job Satisfaction: Attitudes are a person’s evaluative judgments or feelings about objects,
people, or situations. Job satisfaction reflects an individual’s overall positive or negative evaluation of their
job and work experience. Attitudes and job satisfaction can impact employee engagement, commitment,
and performance.
5. Learning and Conditioning: Learning is the process through which individuals acquire new knowledge,
skills, and behaviors. Conditioning, which includes classical conditioning and operant conditioning, plays a
role in shaping behavior by associating stimuli with specific responses and consequences.
 Personality:
 Personality refers to the unique set of relatively stable and enduring traits, patterns of thinking, and
behaviors that characterize an individual. It influences how individuals perceive, interact with, and respond to
their environment.
Personality traits can be categorized using various models, and some common dimensions include:
The Big Five Model: This model includes five broad personality traits: openness to experience,
conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. These traits describe individuals’ tendencies
regarding aspects such as being outgoing, organized, emotionally stable, etc.
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI): The MBTI categorizes personality types based on four dimensions:
extraversion/introversion, sensing/intuition, thinking/feeling, and judging/perceiving. It classifies individuals into
one of 16 personality types, such as ISTJ, ENFP, etc.
Type A and Type B: This classification categorizes individuals based on their behavior patterns. Type A
individuals are often described as competitive, time-conscious, and ambitious, while Type B individuals are more
relaxed, patient, and less driven by time pressure.
Holland’s Occupational Themes: This model categorizes personality types based on six occupational themes:
Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional (RIASEC). These themes represent
different preferences and aptitudes for various work environments and tasks.
 It’s important to note that personality is complex and multi-dimensional, and individuals may exhibit a
combination of traits and behaviors from different personality types. Additionally, personality can evolve and
be influenced by various factors throughout a person’s life.
Personality: Personality refers to a set of enduring traits, characteristics, and patterns of
behavior that distinguish one individual from another. It encompasses a person’s thoughts,
emotions, behaviors, and attitudes that remain relatively consistent across different situations
and over time. Personality traits are believed to be influenced by a combination of genetic and
environmental factors. Understanding personality is crucial for predicting and explaining
individual behavior and preferences.
Personal Effectiveness: Personal effectiveness refers to an individual’s ability to achieve
desired goals and outcomes while maintaining a sense of well-being and balance. It involves
utilizing one’s skills, knowledge, resources, and personal qualities to maximize productivity,
effectiveness, and satisfaction. Personal effectiveness includes various aspects such as time
management, goal setting, decision-making, self-awareness, self-confidence, adaptability, and
interpersonal skills. Developing personal effectiveness is important for professional growth,
career success, and overall life satisfaction.
Attitudes: Attitudes are evaluative beliefs, feelings, and predispositions towards people, objects,
or ideas. They reflect an individual’s positive or negative evaluation and emotional response to a
particular target. Attitudes can influence behavior, decision-making, and interactions with others.
Attitudes are typically formed through a combination of personal experiences, social influence,
and cultural factors. They can be explicit (conscious and easily expressed) or implicit
(unconscious and automatic).
Types of Attitudes:
1. Cognitive Attitudes: Cognitive attitudes involve beliefs, opinions, and knowledge about a particular object or topic.
They are based on rational thought processes and factual information.
2. Affective Attitudes: Affective attitudes are emotional reactions and feelings towards an object or topic. They are
influenced by personal experiences, values, and emotions associated with the target.
3. Behavioral Attitudes: Behavioral attitudes relate to an individual’s predisposition to act or behave in a certain way
towards an object or topic. They reflect an individual’s intention or inclination to engage in specific actions.
Components of Attitudes: Attitudes consist of three components known as the affective, behavioral and cognitive
(ABC) model:
Affective Component: The affective component of attitudes encompasses the emotional or evaluative aspect of
attitudes. It reflects an individual’s feelings, emotions, and affective responses toward the target. For example, if
someone has a negative attitude toward public speaking, they may experience fear, anxiety, or discomfort when faced
with the task.
Behavioral Component: The behavioral component of attitudes relates to an individual’s behavioral intentions or
tendencies regarding the target. It refers to the actions or behaviors that are associated with the attitude. For example, if
someone has a positive attitude toward healthy eating, their behavioral component may involve engaging in behaviors
such as choosing nutritious foods, exercising regularly, and avoiding unhealthy habits

Cognitive Component: : The cognitive component of attitudes involves an individual’s beliefs, thoughts, and
knowledge about the target of the attitude. It represents the person’s understanding and perception of the subject. For
example, if someone holds a positive attitude toward environmental conservation, their cognitive component might
include beliefs such as “Protecting the environment is important for future generations” or “Climate change is a
significant global issue.”
 These components work together to form a holistic understanding of an individual’s attitude towards a particular
target. Attitudes can vary in intensity and strength, and they can change over time due to new experiences,
information, or persuasion.
Attitude Formation: Attitudes can be formed through various processes:
Direct Experience: Personal experiences and interactions with the target can shape attitudes. Positive or negative
experiences can influence how individuals perceive and evaluate the object or topic.
Social Learning: Attitudes can be acquired through observation and modeling others’ attitudes. People learn from
the attitudes expressed by their parents, peers, role models, or the media.
Cognitive Appraisal: Attitudes can also be formed through cognitive appraisal, where individuals evaluate the
benefits, costs, and consequences associated with the target. Rational thinking, information processing, and logical
reasoning play a role in attitude formation.
Conditioning: Attitudes can be developed through classical conditioning, where a neutral stimulus becomes
associated with a positive or negative response. For example, if a product is consistently associated with positive
emotions in advertisements, individuals may develop positive attitudes toward that product.
Attitude Change: Attitudes can change over time due to various factors and processes:
Persuasion: Persuasion involves the deliberate attempt to change attitudes through communication and influence.
Persuasive messages, such as advertising, speeches, or personal conversations, can impact attitudes by presenting
new information, appealing to emotions, or using social influence techniques.
Cognitive Dissonance: Cognitive dissonance theory suggests that individuals strive for consistency between their
attitudes and behaviors. When there is inconsistency or conflict between the two, people may change their
attitudes to reduce the discomfort caused by the inconsistency.
Social Influence: Attitudes can be influenced by social factors, such as conformity, social norms, and group
pressure. People may align their attitudes with the beliefs and values of their social group or conform to social
expectations.
Personal Experience and Learning: New experiences, knowledge, and information can challenge existing
attitudes and lead to attitude change. Exposure to different perspectives, critical thinking, and increased awareness
can influence attitudes.
Meaning and Types of Group Behavior:
Group behavior refers to the way individuals act, interact, and collaborate when they come together as a
group. It involves shared norms, dynamics, and actions that influence how people behave collectively.
Group behavior plays a significant role in decision-making, performance, and achieving common goals.
Types of Group Behavior
1.Cooperation:
In cooperation, group members work together toward a shared goal by pooling their efforts and supporting
one another. It builds teamwork and ensures collective success.
•Example: A team collaborating to complete a project on time.
2.Competition:
Competition occurs when individuals or groups try to outperform each other to gain recognition, rewards, or
advantages. While it can increase motivation and innovation, excessive competition may lead to conflict.
•Example: Sports teams competing for a championship or employees vying for a promotion.
3.Conformity:
Conformity is when individuals adjust their actions, beliefs, or attitudes to align with group norms or
expectations. This often helps maintain harmony and avoid conflict within the group.
•Example: Employees following workplace policies or dress codes.
4.Leadership:
Leadership arises when one or more individuals take charge to guide and influence the group toward
achieving goals. Effective leaders motivate and organize the group while resolving conflicts.
•Example: A manager leading a team to meet targets or a captain motivating a sports team.
.
5.Deviant Behavior:
Deviant behavior refers to actions that go against group norms. While often viewed negatively, it can sometimes
challenge outdated practices and lead to positive change.
•Example: A whistleblower exposing unethical practices in an organization.
6.Collective Behavior:
Collective behavior happens when individuals act together spontaneously, often in response to a shared goal or
external event. It is usually informal and unstructured.
•Example: People gathering for a protest or rally.
7.Altruism:
Altruistic behavior involves selflessly helping others in the group, often at personal cost. It strengthens trust and
bonds within the group.
•Example: Volunteering to help a teammate complete their work or assisting in disaster relief efforts.

Why Understanding Group Behavior Matters

Recognizing group behavior helps foster collaboration, resolve conflicts, and create positive environments in social and
professional settings. It ensures better teamwork, stronger relationships, and higher productivity, making it essential for
achieving collective success
INTERPERSONAL SKILLS,TRAAACTIONAL ANALYSIS,
JOHARI WINDOW:
Interpersonal Skills:
Interpersonal skills are the abilities and behaviors that individuals use to interact and communicate
effectively with others. These skills are essential for building positive relationships, resolving conflicts,
collaborating with others, and working in teams.
Some key interpersonal skills include:
1. Communication: Effective communication involves both listening and expressing oneself clearly and
respectfully. It includes active listening, verbal and nonverbal communication, and the ability to convey
ideas and information effectively.
2. Empathy: Empathy is the ability to understand and share the feelings and perspectives of others. It
involves recognizing and valuing others’ emotions, showing compassion, and being able to see situations
from different viewpoints.
3. Emotional Intelligence: Emotional intelligence refers to the capacity to recognize, understand, and
manage one’s own emotions and those of others. It includes self-awareness, self-regulation, empathy, and
strong interpersonal relationships.
4. Conflict Resolution: Conflict resolution skills help in managing and resolving conflicts in a constructive
and collaborative manner. This involves active listening, negotiation, problem-solving, and finding win-win
solutions.
5. Teamwork and Collaboration: The ability to work effectively in a team and collaborate with others is
crucial for achieving common goals. It includes skills like cooperation, active participation, constructive
feedback, and fostering a supportive team environment.
Transactional Analysis:
Transactional Analysis (TA) is a psychological theory and therapeutic approach developed by Eric Berne. It
focuses on analyzing and understanding human interactions and communication patterns. TA emphasizes
three ego states: Parent, Adult, and Child, which represent different patterns of behavior and ways of relating
to others. TA examines these ego states and their interactions in order to promote effective communication
and understanding. It can be applied in various contexts, including personal relationships, counseling, and
organizational development.
JOHARI WINDOW:
The Johari Window is a model that helps individuals understand and improve their self-awareness and
interpersonal relationships. It was developed by psychologists Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham. The Johari
Window consists of four quadrants representing different aspects of self-knowledge and interpersonal
communication:
1. Open Area: This quadrant represents the aspects of oneself that are known to both oneself and others. It
includes behaviors, thoughts, and feelings that are openly shared and understood.
2. Blind Area: This quadrant represents the aspects of oneself that are not known to oneself but are known
to others. It includes traits, behaviors, or patterns that others observe but the individual is unaware of.
3. Hidden Area: This quadrant represents the aspects of oneself that are known to oneself but not to others.
It includes private thoughts, feelings, and experiences that an individual chooses not to disclose.
4. Unknown Area: This quadrant represents the aspects of oneself that are neither known to oneself nor to
others. It includes potential talents, capabilities, or aspects that have not yet been discovered or explored.
 The Johari Window encourages individuals to expand the Open Area by increasing self-disclosure, seeking
feedback, and developing trust in relationships. It emphasizes the importance of self-awareness, mutual
understanding, and effective communication for personal growth and enhancing interpersonal relationships.