Computer Organization

Different Positional Number Systems

• Denary - A digit in base 10 ranges from 0 to 9.

• Binary - A digit in base 2 ranges from 0 to 1.
A digit in base 2 is also called a ‘bit’.
• Hexadecimal - A digit in Base 16 can range
from 0 to 15 (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F).
• Octal - A digit in Base 8 can range from 0 to 7
• Generally, a digit in base R can range from 0
to R-1
Positional Number System – Denary (Base
10)
Positional values or Place values or weights
102 101 100 10-1 10-2 10-3

1 2 3 . 3 2 1

MSD Decimal LSD

point

The number is written as 123.32110

Positional Number System – Binary (Base 2)

22 21 20 2-1 2-2 2-3

1 0 1 . 0 1 1

MSB LSB

base point or radix

The number is written as 101.0112

 What is Binary System?
• Binary generally represents 2 states – 0 or 1.
• Aim of binary system is to represent data in
these two states
• These two states are easily implemented as a
switch in a computer.
• 0 – OFF, FALSE
• 1 – ON, TRUE
• There are millions of switches in a computer to
switch between 0 and 1
 Denary System concept
• Base 10 system.

100 = 1
101 = 10
102 = 100
103 = 1000
104 = 10000
• So a denary number 248 is expanded in Base 10
system as
2x102 + 4x101 + 8x100
 Binary System concept
• Base 2 system
20 = 1
21 = 2
22 = 4
23 = 8
24 = 16
25 = 32 and so on
• So a binary number 110 is expanded in base 2
system as
1x22 + 1x 21 + 0x20
 How to convert a binary number to denary?

• Example 1
• Binary 1110
0 x 20 = 0
1 x 21 = 2
1 x 22 = 4
1 x 23 = 8
Total = 14
Equivalent Denary Number = 14
 How to convert a binary number to denary?
• Example 2
• Binary 101101010
0 x 20 = 0
1 x 21 = 2
0 x 22 = 0
1 x 23 = 8
0 x 24 = 0
1 x 25 = 32
1 x 26 = 64
0 x 27 = 0
1 x 28 = 256
Total = 256 + 64 + 32 + 8 + 4 + 2 = 362
 How to convert a denary number to binary?
• We also follow successive or repetitive division by 2.
• This is more methodical.
• Example
• Take a denary number 245.
2| 245
2| Quotient 122 – Remainder 1
2| Quotient 61 – Remainder 0
2| Quotient 30 – Remainder 1
2| Quotient 15 – Remainder 0
2| Quotient 7 – Remainder 1
2| Quotient 3 – Remainder 1
2| Quotient 1 – Remainder 1
2| Quotient 0 – Remainder 1

Stop when the Quotient becomes 0

Take the remainders bottom up.
 Fact
• Everything should be stored as binary in the
computer.
• Which means everything should be converted
to numbers
– Music
– Video
– Text like Abcd,&*(@
– Pictures
• Digital data comprises of binary numbers
 Byte
• A binary digit is known as bit
• 8 bits are referred to as a Byte
• 4 bits make a Nibble
• The byte is the smallest unit of memory.
• With one byte, not much data can be stored.
• Usually data occupies multiple bytes.
 Memory Sizes
Memory Size Number of bits Denary Value
1 Kilobyte 210 bytes 1024 bytes
1 megabyte 220 = 1000 KB 1048576 bytes
1 gigabyte 230 = 1000 MB 1073741824 bytes
1 terabyte 240 = 1000 GB 1099511627776 bytes
1 petabyte 250 = 1000 TB 1125899906842624 bytes
1 exabyte 260
1 zettabyte 270
1 yottabyte 280
 Hexadecimal
• It is similar to binary system.
• Base 16 system
• 16 different values are required to represent a digit
• 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F are used
• Where A = 10, B =11, C=12, D=13, E= 14, F=15
160 = 1
161 = 16
162 = 256
163 = 4096
164 = 65536
• Since 16 = 24 , each hex digit requires 4 binary digits
Denary Binary Hex
0 0000 0
1 0001 1
2 0010 2
3 0011 3
4 0100 4
5 0101 5
6 0110 6
7 0111 7
8 1000 8
9 1001 9
10 1010 A
11 1011 B
12 1100 C
13 1101 D
14 1110 E
15 1111 F
 Why Hexadecimal System?
• What does a Base 16 number system have to do
with a machine that's based on zeros and ones?
• Long before programmers regularly used a
convenient method to handle large binary
numbers in either 3-bit (octal) or 4-bit
(hexadecimal) groupings.
• Ease of display – saving screen space and paper
• Conversion from hex to binary and vice versa is
easier
 Converting from Binary to Hex
• Example
1111100001
• Start from right and split into 4 bits
11 1110 0001
0011 1110 0001
3 E 1
 Converting from Hex to Binary
• Example 45A
4 5 A
0100 0101 1010
Equivalent Binary is 10001011010
• Example BF08
B F 0 8
1011 1111 0000 1000
Equivalent Binary is 1011111100001000
Converting hex numbers to denary
• Example 45A
• Can be expanded as
• 4x162 + 5x161 + Ax160 (A is 10)
• Which is
• 1024 + 80 + 10 = 1114
 Converting denary numbers to hex –
Method 1
• Trial and Error method
4096 256 16 1
7 D 4 = 2004
(D is 13)
 Converting denary numbers to hex –
Method 2
• Repetitive division method by 16
16| 2004
16| Quotient 125 – Remainder 4
16| Quotient 7 – Remainder 13
Quotient 0 – Remainder 7

• Stop when the Quotient becomes 0

• Take the remainders bottom up.
• 2004 in denary = 7D4 in hex
 Hexadecimal - Memory dump
• Hexadecimal uses
– Memory dumps
– Error codes
– HTML color codes
 Data representation in the computer
• Computer work with the binary number system, so
everything in them is represented in 1s and 0s.
• So, the data that we want to store in the computer
needs to be encoded in 1s and 0s.
• TEXT
• Text needs to be also transformed into 0s and 1s.
• To do this, a character set is used.
• A character set is a collection of characters and the
binary codes that represent them.
• Today, the most used character sets are ASCII and
Unicode.
 Data representation in the computer
• ASCII: stands for American Standard Code for Information
Interchange. It uses 7 (later 8) bits to encode the characters,
so in total 28=256 different characters can be represented.
• Unicode: is a superset of ASCII. It was developed because
people realized that the 256 characters of ASCII are not
enough to satisfy our need for a suitable number of
characters. It uses upto 32 bits to encode the characters.
• Advantages
– Data corruption is eliminated
– The product can get support in many platforms, countries
– Cost savings
• UTF-8 (Variable length), UTF-16(Variable length), UTF-32(Fixed length) variants
are present
• Strings: representation of characters in a continuous bit
chain
 Data representation in the computer
• Integers: representation of numbers in computers.
(Whole numbers)
• Unsigned Integers
– Covers only positive numbers
– For example - 8 bits 28 = 256 (0 to 255 can be represented)
• Signed Integers
– Covers both positive and negative numbers
– For example – 8 bits 28 = 256 ( -128 to + 127 can be
represented)
– Negatives can be represented by the two's complement
method.
 Two’s complement
• Assume that an 8-bit register needs to store positive as
well as negative numbers
• Positive Range would be 0 to 127 (total 128 numbers)
• Negative Range would be -1 to – 128 (total 128 numbers)
• Positive numbers can be stored in this register by directly
converting to binary
• Negative numbers will be represented in two’s
complement form
• The MSB will take a negative place value as shown below.
Two’s complement – Short cut method
• How to find
– Take the binary for the positive equivalent
– Revert the bits and add 1 to the LSB
– MSB determines whether the number is positive
or negative
 Two’s Complement
• Normal Binary form for Positive Number (True form)
• Two’s complement form for negative number
• It is calculated by adding 1 to 1’s complement.
• 1’s complement of 0110 = 1001
• 2’s complement of 0110 = 1
-------------------
1010
Binary addition rules are 0+0=0
0+1=1
1+0=1
1 + 1 = 10
1 + 1 + 1 = 11
Two’s complement Binary
0111
Decimal
+7
• Consider 4 bit register 0110 +6
0101 +5
1. There is one unique 0 0100 +4
2. The 2’s complement of 0 is 0 0011 +3
3. The leftmost bit actually represents 0010 +2
whether a number is negative and 0001 +1
positive, 0 – positive, 1 – negative 0000 0
4. 2’s complement of a negative number is 1111 -1
positive number 1110 -2
1101 -3
1100 -4
1011 -5
1010 -6
1001 -7
1000 -8
 TOK - Does binary represent an example of
a lingua franca?
• Lingua Franca – a shared language of communication used by people
who are speakers of different languages.
• Standard Language: foundational language for all computers and digital
devices. Regardless of the hardware or software, universally understood
by digital systems.
• Interoperability: allows different systems and devices to communicate
and operate together seamlessly. Just as a lingua franca facilitates
communication between people of different native languages.
• uses only two symbols (0 and 1), making it a simple and efficient way to
represent and process information. parallels how a lingua franca often
uses simplified vocabulary and grammar to ease communication.
• unambiguous way to represent instructions and data.
 Data representation in the computer
• Colours
– Red, Green and Blue are the primary colors
– All the other colors are generated by the varying intensity of these
three colors.
– Each primary color is represented by 8 bits giving 256 different
intensities.
– Each color is represented by 24 bits (8x3) giving 16.7 Million color
shades.
– Since representing each color by 24 bits is cumbersome, it is
converted to Hex numbers.

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 Introduction

e rsta nd t h is  Understand this 

Und
d e v i c e t h at • Logic gates serve as the
• Gate - A a s ic
r m s a b building blocks to digital
perfo
on
operation logic circuits using
c t r i ca l si g nals combinational logic.
e le a re
- G a t e s
• Circuits p e r form
• Logic gates basically
e d to
combin ted
process signals which
co m p l i c a represent true or false or
more
tasks the equivalent i.e. ON or
OFF, 1 or 0
 Introduction

• Basic Gates
• 1. NOT gate
• 2. AND gate
• 3. OR gate
• 4. NAND gate
• 5. NOR gate
• 6. XOR gate.
• Logic diagram - A graphical representation of a
circuit
– Each type of gate is represented by a specific
graphical symbol
• Truth table - A table showing all possible input
values and the associated output values
Symbols Used
 NOT GATE
• A NOT gate accepts one input value and
produces one output value

• A NOT gate is sometimes referred to as an

inverter because it inverts the input value
 AND GATE
• An AND gate accepts two or more input
signals
• If all the input values for an AND gate are 1,
the output is 1; otherwise, the output is 0
 OR GATE
• If all the input values are 0, the output value is
0; otherwise, the output is 1
• If one of the input values is 1, the output is 1
 NAND GATE
• The NAND gate is the opposite of the AND
gate
• AND - NOT combination
 NOR GATE
• The NOR gate is the opposite of the OR gate
• OR - NOT combination
 XOR GATE
• exclusive OR gate
• An XOR gate produces 0 if its two inputs are the
same, and a 1 otherwise
• The output is true only when the inputs are
opposite of each other
• When both input signals are 1, the OR gate
produces a 1 and the XOR produces a 0
• Logical Expression for XOR gate is A  B or A.B + A.B
 Basic Theorems

• Fundamental laws
• If X ≠ 0 then X = 1
• If X ≠ 1 then X = 0
• OR Relations
– 0+0=0
– 0+1=1
– 1+0=1
– 1+1=1
• AND Relations
– 0.0=0
– 0.1=0
– 1.0=0
– 1.1=1
• Complement Rules
– 0=1
– 1=0
 Basic Theorems
• 0+X=X
• 1+X=1
• 0.X=0
• 1.X=X
• X+X=X
• X.X=X
• X’’ = X

• Precedence is NOT, AND, OR

Producing the truth table from a given logic
network
• Consider the following logic network which
contains three inputs and three logic gates:
• Deduce S, Deduce T and finally X
Designing logic networks to solve a specific
problem and testing using
truth tables
• Consider the following problem:
• “If button A or button B is on and button C is
off then the alarm X goes on”
• We can convert this into logic gate
terminology (ON = 1 and OFF = 0):
• If (A = 1 OR B = 1) AND (C = 0) then (X = 1)
 Example
• A steel rolling mill is to be controlled by a logic network made up of AND, OR and NOT
gates only. The mill receives a stop signal (i.e. S = 1) depending on the following input
bits:

• A stop signal (S = 1) occurs when:

• Either Length, L > 100 meters and Velocity, V < 10 m/s
• Or Temperature, T < 1000 C and Velocity, V > 10 m/s

• Draw a logic network and truth table to show all the possible situations when the stop
signal could be received.
 Example
• The first thing to do is to try and turn the question into a series of logic gates and
then the problem becomes much simplified.

• The first statement can be re-written as: (L = 1 AND V = NOT 1) since Length > 100
meters
• corresponds to a binary value of 1 and Velocity < 10 m/s corresponds to a binary
value of 0 (i.e. NOT 1).

• The second statement can be re-written as (T = NOT 1 AND V = 1) since

Temperature < 1000C
• corresponds to a binary value of 0 (i.e. NOT 1) and Velocity > 10 m/s corresponds
to a binary value of 1

• Both these statements are joined together by OR which gives us the logic
statement:

• if (L = 1 AND V = 0) OR (T = 0 AND V = 1) then S = 1

 Given a truth table, how to get the logical
expression
A B C X Consider only the terms
(output) where the outputs are 1.
0 0 0 0 In this example, Row 2 and 7
0 0 1 1 Write the equivalent expression
0 1 0 0 For the terms separately using AND
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 For Row 2
1 0 1 0 A’.B.’C
1 1 0 1 (Note - 0 gets a dash, 1 as it is)

1 1 1 0 For Row 7
A.B.C’

Combine with OR
X = A’.B’.C + A.B.C’
TOK – Reason as a way of knowing
• involves the use of logic and rational thinking
to derive knowledge, make decisions, and
solve problem.
• Logic is formed in terms of circuits.
• There are only 2 answers – Yes or No. There
are no partial answers.
• Clarity and Precision in conclusions or
decisions