Introduction to Algorithms

6.046J

Lecture 2
Prof. Shafi Goldwasser
 Solving recurrences
• The analysis of integer multiplication
from Lecture 1 required us to solve a
recurrence.
• Recurrences are a major tool for
analysis of algorithms
• Today: Learn a few methods.
• Lecture 3: Divide and Conquer
algorithms which are analyzable by
recurrences.
L2.2
 Recall: Integer Multiplication

• Let X = A B and Y = C D where A,B,C

and D are n/2 bit integers
• Simple Method: XY = (2n/2A+B)(2n/2C+D)
• Running Time Recurrence
T(n) < 4T(n/2) + 100n

How do we solve it?

L2.3
 Substitution method
The most general method:
1. Guess the form of the solution.
2. Verify by induction.
3. Solve for constants.
Example: T(n) = 4T(n/2) + 100n
• [Assume that T(1) = (1).]
• Guess O(n3) . (Prove O and  separately.)
• Assume that T(k)  ck3 for k < n .
• Prove T(n)  cn3 by induction.
L2.4
 Example of substitution
T ( n)  4T ( n / 2)  100n
 4c( n / 2)3  100n
 (c / 2) n3  100n
 cn3  ((c / 2) n3  100n )
desired – residual
 cn 3 desired
whenever (c/2)n3 – 100n  0, for
example, if c  200 and n  1.
residual

L2.5
 Example (continued)
• We must also handle the initial conditions,
that is, ground the induction with base
cases.
• Base: T(n) = (1) for all n < n0, where n0
is a suitable constant.
• For 1  n < n0, we have “(1)”  cn3, if
we pick c big enough.

This bound is not tight!

L2.6
 A tighter upper bound?
We shall prove that T(n) = O(n2).
Assume that T(k)  ck2 for k < n:
T ( n) 4T ( n / 2) 100n
 cn2 100n
 cn2 

for no choice of c > 0. Lose!

L2.7
 A tighter upper bound!
IDEA: Strengthen the inductive hypothesis.
• Subtract a low-order term.
Inductive hypothesis: T(k)  c1k2 – c2k for k < n.
T ( n)  4T ( n / 2)  100n
 4(c1 (n / 2) 2  c2 (n / 2)) 100n
 c1n 2  2c2 n  100n
 c1n 2  c2 n  (c2 n  100n)
 c1n 2  c2 n if c > 100.
2
Pick c1 big enough to handle the initial conditions.
L2.8
 Recursion-tree method
• A recursion tree models the costs (time) of a
recursive execution of an algorithm.
• The recursion tree method is good for
generating guesses for the substitution
method.
• The recursion-tree method can be unreliable,
just like any method that uses ellipses (…).
• The recursion-tree method promotes intuition,
however.
L2.9
 Example of recursion tree
Solve T(n) = T(n/4) + T(n/2) + n2:

L2.10
 Example of recursion tree
Solve T(n) = T(n/4) + T(n/2) + n2:
T(n)

L2.11
 Example of recursion tree
Solve T(n) = T(n/4) + T(n/2) + n2:
n2
T(n/4) T(n/2)

L2.12
 Example of recursion tree
Solve T(n) = T(n/4) + T(n/2) + n2:
n2
(n/4)2 (n/2)2

T(n/16) T(n/8) T(n/8) T(n/4)

L2.13
 Example of recursion tree
Solve T(n) = T(n/4) + T(n/2) + n2:
n2
(n/4)2 (n/2)2

(n/16)2 (n/8)2 (n/8)2 (n/4)2

…

(1)

L2.14
 Example of recursion tree
Solve T(n) = T(n/4) + T(n/2) + n2:
n2 n2
(n/4)2 (n/2)2

(n/16)2 (n/8)2 (n/8)2 (n/4)2

…

(1)

L2.15
 Example of recursion tree
Solve T(n) = T(n/4) + T(n/2) + n2:
n2 n2
5 n2
(n/4) 2 (n/2) 2
16
(n/16)2 (n/8)2 (n/8)2 (n/4)2
…

(1)

L2.16
 Example of recursion tree
Solve T(n) = T(n/4) + T(n/2) + n2:
n2 n2
5 n2
(n/4) 2 (n/2) 2
16
25 n 2
(n/16)2 (n/8)2 (n/8)2 (n/4)2 256

…
…

(1)

L2.17
 Example of recursion tree
Solve T(n) = T(n/4) + T(n/2) + n2:
n2 n2
5 n2
(n/4) 2 (n/2) 2
16
25 n 2
(n/16)2 (n/8)2 (n/8)2 (n/4)2 256

…
…

(1) Total = n
2
 5 5
1  16  16
2
      
5 3
16
= (n2) geometric series
L2.18
 Appendix: geometric series

n 1
1  x
1  x  x2   xn  for x  1
1 x

2 1
1 x  x   for |x| < 1
1 x

Return to last
slide viewed.

L2.19
 The master method

The master method applies to recurrences of

the form
T(n) = a T(n/b) + f (n) ,
where a  1, b > 1, and f is asymptotically
positive.

L2.20
 Idea of master theorem
Recursion tree:
f (n) f (n)
a
f (n/b) f (n/b) … f (n/b) a f (n/b)
h = logbn a
f (n/b2) f (n/b2) … f (n/b2) a2 f (n/b2)

…
…

#leaves = ah
= alogbn nlogba(1)
(1)
= nlogba

L2.21
 Three common cases
Compare f (n) with nlogba:
1. f (n) = O(nlogba – ) for some constant  > 0.
• f (n) grows polynomially slower than nlogba
(by an n factor).
Solution: T(n) = (nlogba) .

L2.22
 Idea of master theorem
Recursion tree:
f (n) f (n)
a
f (n/b) f (n/b) … f (n/b) a f (n/b)
h = logbn a
f (n/b2) f (n/b2) … f (n/b2) a2 f (n/b2)

…
C ASE 1:
1: The
The weight
weight increases
…

CASE increases
geometrically
geometrically from
from the
the root
root to
to the
the nlogba(1)
(1) leaves.
leaves. The
The leaves
leaves hold
hold aa constant
constant
fraction
fraction of
of the
the total
total weight.
weight. (nlogba)
L2.23
 Three common cases
Compare f (n) with nlogba:

2. f (n) = (nlogba lgkn) for some constant k  0.

• f (n) and nlogba grow at similar rates.
Solution: T(n) = (nlogba lgk+1n) .

L2.24
 Idea of master theorem
Recursion tree:
f (n) f (n)
a
f (n/b) f (n/b) … f (n/b) a f (n/b)
h = logbn a
f (n/b2) f (n/b2) … f (n/b2) a2 f (n/b2)

…
…

CCASEASE 2:
2: (k
(k == 0)
0) The
The weight
weight
isis approximately
approximately the the same
same on
on
nlogba(1)
(1)
each
each ofof the
the log
logbbnn levels.
levels.
(nlogbalg n)
L2.25
 Three common cases (cont.)
Compare f (n) with nlogba:
3. f (n) = (nlogba + ) for some constant  > 0.
• f (n) grows polynomially faster than nlogba (by
an n factor),
and f (n) satisfies the regularity condition that
a f (n/b)  c f (n) for some constant c < 1.
Solution: T(n) = ( f (n) ) .

L2.26
 Idea of master theorem
Recursion tree:
f (n) f (n)
a
f (n/b) f (n/b) … f (n/b) a f (n/b)
h = logbn a
f (n/b2) f (n/b2) … f (n/b2) a2 f (n/b2)

…
C ASE 3:
3: The
The weight
weight decreases
…

CASE decreases
geometrically
geometrically from
from the
the root
root to
to the
the nlogba(1)
(1) leaves.
leaves. The
The root
root holds
holds aa constant
constant
fraction
fraction of
of the
the total
total weight.
weight. ( f (n))
L2.27
 Examples

Ex. T(n) = 4T(n/2) + n

a = 4, b = 2  nlogba = n2; f (n) = n.
CASE 1: f (n) = O(n2 – ) for  = 1.
 T(n) = (n2).

Ex. T(n) = 4T(n/2) + n2

a = 4, b = 2  nlogba = n2; f (n) = n2.
CASE 2: f (n) = (n2lg0n), that is, k = 0.
 T(n) = (n2lg n).

L2.28
 Examples
Ex. T(n) = 4T(n/2) + n3
a = 4, b = 2  nlogba = n2; f (n) = n3.
CASE 3: f (n) = (n2 + ) for  = 1
and 4(cn/2)3  cn3 (reg. cond.) for c = 1/2.
 T(n) = (n3).

Ex. T(n) = 4T(n/2) + n2/lg n

a = 4, b = 2  nlogba = n2; f (n) = n2/lg n.
Master method does not apply. In particular,
for every constant  > 0, we have n (lg
n).
L2.29
 Conclusion

• Next time: applying the master method.

• For proof of master theorem, goto section

L2.30