ECE3045 – Sensor Technologies

Dr. Noel Prashant Ratchagar

Asst. Prof., Presidency University, Bangalore
Measurements

• The process by which one can convert physical

parameters to meaningful numbers
• The process of comparing an unknown quantity with a
standard of the same quantity

• To get meaningful results, there are two basic requirements

> Standard used for comparison must be accurately designed
> Apparatus used and method adopted must be proved

• There are two major functions in all branches of engineering

> Design of equipment and processes
> Proper operation and maintenance of equipment and processes
o Both these require measurements

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 2

Basic Electronic Measuring System

1. Sensor: Converts measurand into usable electrical output

2. Signal Conditioner: Converts transducer output into the
type of electrical signal that the display device will accept
3. Display Device: Displays required information about
measurand
4. Power Supply: Feeds required voltages to the signal
conditioner, transducers (except “self-generating”), display
devices Signal Display
Data
Measura Sensor Condition (Readout
Interpretat
nd er )
ion

Power
Supply

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 3

Units of Measurements

• The base measurement system is known as SI, which stands

for Le Syste’me International d’Unite’s in French

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 4

Sensors

• Broad Definition
Device that receives and responds to a
stimulus

• Example: A level-control system:

> Operator adjusts fluid level in tank by adjusting valve
> Without control, tank may overflow / run dry
> Information received by two parts:
o Sight tube on tank
o Operator’s eye
> Combination of these two components makes a sensor
> Variations possible:
o Sight tube diameter – smaller diameter can cause lag due to viscosity
o Operator eye sight and height – can cause lag
> Some cases it is acceptable, but in some cases it is not
February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 5
Sensors

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 6

Sensors

• Sensor is a device that measures physical input from

environment and convert it into data that can be
interpreted by a human / machine

• Natural Systems
> Usually respond with signals, having electrochemical character
> Physical nature is based on ion transport
• Man-made Systems
> Information is transmitted and processed in electrical form
> Based on electron transport

Sensor is a device that receives stimulus

and responds with an electrical signal

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 7

Sensors

• The purpose of the sensor is to respond to some kind of an

input physical property (stimulus) and convert it into an signal
which is compatible with electronic circuits (electrical)

• A sensor is a TRANSLATOR of a non-electrical value to

electrical value

• The stimulus is a quantity / property / condition that is being

sensed
• The output signal may be in the form of voltage / current /
charge
Physical quantity Electrical quantity
SENSOR
Temperature Thermistor Voltage

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 8

Sensors

• Sensors does not function by itself – It is always a part of

larger system

• Can be extrinsic: placed at input of device

to monitor output effects /
intrinsic: monitor devices’ own state

• Sensor 1: Non-contact extrinsic sensor

• Sensor 5: Monitors internal conditions of
data acquisition system
• Sensors 1 and 3: Cannot be directly
connected to circuit because of inappropriate output signals – They
require interfacing circuit – Signal conditioning circuits
• Sensor 4: is active sensor – They need external power to generate
electric signals which is provided by excitation circuit

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 9

Sensors – Types

• Direct Sensor
> Converts stimulus into an electrical signal
o Example: Thermopile
– Temperature to Voltage

• Complex Sensor
> Converts stimulus into a non-electrical signal before output
electrical signal
> Needs more than one transducer
o Example: Chemical Sensor
– Chemical reaction to Heat to Voltage
> Has at least one direct sensor

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 10

Sensors – Types

• Passive Sensor
> Does not need any additional energy source
> Directly generates electric signal in response
to external stimulus
> Example: Thermocouple, Photodiode, Piezoelectric sensor

• Active Sensor
> Require external source for operation, usually called excitation
signal
> Sometimes called parametric, because the sensor’s own properties
change in response to the external effect
> Example: Thermistor, Resistive strain gauge

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 11

Sensors – Types

• Absolute Sensor
> Detects stimulus in reference to absolute scale
irrespective of measuring conditions
> Example: Thermistor
o Resistivity related to absolute temperature scale (K)

• Relative Sensor
> Produces signal that relates to some special case
> Example: Thermocouple
o Output voltage function of temperature gradient

• Pressure sensor – Example of both absolute and relative sensor

> Absolute sensor  signal in reference to vacuum
> Relative sensor  signal in reference to selected non-zero baseline

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 12

Transducers

• Transducers:
Convert one type of energy into another
• Example: Microphone
> Acoustic waves  Variable Magnetic Field  Electrical energy
• Transducer has nothing to do with perception or sensing

• Can be Actuator (opposite of sensor) in some cases

• Example: Loudspeaker
> Electrical energy  Variable Magnetic Field  Acoustic waves

• Sensor can have multiple transducers (Complex Sensors)

• Example: Chemical sensor
> Chemical reaction  Heat energy  Electrical energy

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 13

Sensor Characteristics

• Regardless of physical nature or steps required for conversion,

consider sensor as a “black-box” where only relationship
between output signal and input stimulus is of concern

• Importance of Sensor Characteristics:

> Crucial for selecting right sensor for an application
> Understand how sensor works in real-world conditions

• Types of Characteristics
1.Static Characteristics
2.Dynamic Characteristics
3.Environmental Characteristics

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 14

Static Characteristics

• Transfer function
• Full scale input
• Full scale output
• Non-linearity
• Accuracy
• Calibration
• Hysteresis
• Threshold, Saturation, Offset, Deadband
• Repeatability, Reliability
• Resolution
• Impedance
• Excitation

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 15

Transfer Function

• Functional relationship between input and output signals

• Ideal output-input relationship is characterized by transfer
function
• The relationship between output electric signal (Y) and input
stimulus (X):

• A function can be a simple linear relation:

a  Intercept (output signal at zero output)
b  Slope (Sensitivity)

• The function can also be non-linear

> Logarithmic:
> Exponential:
> Power:
February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 16
Transfer Function

• In linear transfer function:

> Example:
o a  Intercept = 1.043
o b  Slope (Sensitivity) = 0.020

• Sensitivity:
Transfer
> Linear functions, function:
> Non-linear functions, Y=1.043 +
0.020 X
Regression =
0.998
• In many cases, non-linear function is considered linear over a
limited range and the sensor is approximated as a linear
function over that range. This is called piecewise
approximation

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 17

Full Scale Input

• Dynamic range of stimuli (input) which may be

converted by the sensor
• Difference between maximum and minimum
input values

• Represents highest possible input that can be

applied to sensor without causing large inaccuracy

• Often represents in decibels

• Logarithmic power of inputs: Full Scale
S2 and S1 is maximum and minimum input values Input

• NOTE: Decibels do not measure absolute values, but ratio of values only

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 18

Full Scale Output

• Change between maximum and minimum values

of electric output signals when maximum
and minimum input stimulus is applied

• Algebraic difference between electric Full

Output
Scale
Output
output signals measured when highest
input stimulus and lowest input stimulus
is applied

• This must include all deviations from

ideal transfer function

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 19

Non-linearity

• Error usually associated described for sensors with linear

transfer function
• Maximum deviation from the transfer function

• Can be calculated using

> Use of terminal points
> Use method of least squares

• Use of terminal points:

> Determine output values at the smallest and highest stimulus
(input) and draw a straight line through these points
• Use of method of least squares
> Measure several output values at input values over substantially
broad range. Use formulas of linear regression to determine
intercept and slope
February 5, 2025
of straight line
© Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 20
 Non-linearity

Best fit – Linear regression

a
a l Dat Terminal Points
Re

Non-linearity of terminal points

Non-linearity of linear regression

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 21

Accuracy

• Important characteristic; which actually means inaccuracy

• Highest deviation of a value represented by sensor from ideal
or true value at the input
• Difference between measured value () and true value (), called
error

> Absolute Error

Inaccuracy

> Relative Error

• Error can be represented

> % of full-scale  permissible error is constant throughout F.S.I
> % of reading  permissible error varies according to measured
value
February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 22
Accuracy

• Example: Measuring pressure of values 100Pa, 50Pa and 20Pa

Measured Permissible error on 0.1% Permissible error on 0.1%
Value (Pa) of full-scale and range of reading and range
100 0.1 (99.9 – 100.1) 0.1 (99.9 – 100.1)
50 0.1 (49.9 – 50.1) 0.05 (49.95 – 50.05)
20 0.1 (19.9 – 20.1) 0.02 (19.98 – 20.02)

• Example: Consider linear displacement sensor that generates 1mV

per 1mm displacement. However, for displacement 10mm, the
produced output is 10.5mV.
> The transfer function is linear with slope (sensitivity) 1 mm/mV.
> By inverse transfer function, input must be 10.5 mm
> Error = |10.5 – 10| = 0.5 mm
> Expressed as 0.5 mm inaccuracy in 10 mm range
> Relatively, expressed as 5% inaccuracy

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 23

Accuracy

• Inaccuracy rating can be represented in a number of forms:

> Directly in terms of measured value
> In percent of input span
> In terms of output signal

• Example:
> A piezoelectric pressure sensor with 100 kPa F.S.I, and 10 Ω F.S.O.
> If the sensor provides an output of 10.05 Ω for 100 kPa input, then
inaccuracy can be
o ± 500 Pa - In terms of measured value
o ± 0.5% - In percent of input span
o ± 0.05 Ω - In terms of output signal

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 24

Accuracy Errors

• Systematic Errors:
> Interfering or modifying variables (eg. Temperature)
> Drift (eg. Changes in chemical structure or mechanical stress)
> Measurement process changes the measurand (eg. Loading effects)
> Transmission process changes the signal (eg. Attenuation)
> Human observations (eg. Parallax error)
• Ways to avoid Systematic Errors:
> Triangulation
> Regular calibration

• Random Errors:
> Environmental noise (eg. Background noise picked by microphone)
> Transmission noise (eg. 60Hz hum)
• Ways to avoid Systematic Errors:
> Taking repeated measurements
> Increasing sample size

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 25

Calibration

• Determination of specific variables that describe overall transfer

function
• Overall means of the entire circuit
> Includes sensor, interfacing circuitry, etc.

• If sensor’s manufacturer’s tolerance and tolerance of interfacing

circuits is larger than required accuracy, then calibration is necessary
> We have sensor that can measure temperature with an accuracy of ±1°C.
But we need a system that should measure temperature with accuracy of
±0.5°C. In this case, calibration is needed

• It is essential to have properly maintained precise and accurate

physical standards of the appropriate stimuli

• Mathematical model of transfer function must be known before

calibration
February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 26
Calibration

• How to calibrate:
> Transfer function of the sensor needs to be found during calibration
> Apply inverse transfer function to compute applied input value from
the measured output

• Example:
> Consider a sensor that will measure pressure (P) and produce an
voltage (V) with a transfer function: ;
> To compute a and b, we need at least two values:
and
> So, and
> From this, input pressure and be identified from output voltage
using inverse transfer function:

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 27

Calibration - Error

• Inaccuracy permitted by manufacturer when sensor is

calibrated in factory
• Error is systematic in nature
> Error is added to all possible real transfer function
• Error is not necessarily uniform over the range and may
change depending on the type of error in the calibration

• Error calculation:
> Two stimuli S1 and S2 applied, output is A1 and A2
> At S1 – no error, S2 – error of –Δ
> New intercept a1 is calculated by

> New slope error is

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 28

Drift

• Caused by the variations in sensor parts over time

• Prime sources
> Mechanical stress introduced
> Chemical structure change

• Zero Drift
Zero Drift
> Calibration gradually shifts due to
slipping, zero setting, etc.

• Span/Sensitivity Drift
> Proportional change in the transfer function

Span/Sensitivity Drift

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 29

Hysteresis

• Deviation of sensor’s output at a specific point of the input

signal when it is approached from the opposite directions

• Example:
> When object moves from left to right, a displacement sensor
produces a voltage difference of 20 mV from that when the object
moves from right to left
> Assuming sensitivity of sensor is 10 mV/mm,
hysteresis error is 2 mm (in terms of measured value).

• Typical causes are

> Friction
> Structural changes in the material

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 30

Threshold, Saturation, Offset, Dead Band

• Saturation:
> Operating limit after which the sensor will not

d
respond to change in input stimuli (Maximum)

ol

n
ti o
sh
• Threshold:

re

ra
Th

tu
> Operating limit until which the sensor will not

Sa
respond to change in input stimuli (Minimum) Offset
• Offset:
> Measured output, when no stimulus is applied
> Also, considered baseline in most measurements
• Dead Band:
> Region where the output may remain at
certain value without any change in
measurement

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 31

Repeatability, Reliability

• Ability to produce same output under identical conditions

• Repeatability error – Variation between two varying signal
outputs
• Error:
• Sometimes, also referred to as precision

• Associated parameter
> Reproducibility - Ability to produce same
output under different conditions

• Reliability – Ability of sensor to perform desired function for a

definite period without failure or degradation

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 32

Reliability Index

• Reliability – Probability that a product will perform successfully

under specified operating conditions for a given period of time

• Reliability Indices
> Failure Rate (λ)
> Mean Time to Failure (MTTF)
> Mean Time Between Failure (MTBF)

• Failure Rate (λ)

> Represents the rate at which the product fails

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 33

Reliability Index

• Mean Time to Failure (MTTF)

> Time to fail for non-repairable units

• Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF)

> Time to fail for repairable units

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 34

Reliability Index

• Bathtub Curve
> Tool used to model the reliability
of a unit (or system) over the
units entire life

• Early Failures:
> High number of failures
> Due to errors in design
or manufacturing
> Decreasing over time, as products
with defects are removed from the population

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 35

Reliability Index

• Useful lifetime:
> Lowest number of failures
> Due to random effects like
external stress, mishandling
of product, etc.
>

• Wear-out failures
> Increasing number of failures
> Aging of components
> Due to corrosion, oxidation or fatigue

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 36

Resolution

• Smallest increment of the stimulus (input) that can be sensed

• Output of the sensor will not be perfectly smooth, even under

no-noise condition – Output might vary in small steps
• Magnitude of input variation resulting in output smallest step is
Resolution

• Infinitesimal resolution:
> Continuous resolution
> Condition when there are
no measurable steps
in the output signal

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 37

Resolution

• Example:
> Consider a tire pressure monitoring system:
> Case1: If pressure drops from 30psi to 29.9psi, and the sensor can
accurately measure and display this change, then the resolution of
the sensor is 0.1psi (Higher resolution)
> Case2: If there is a pressure drop from 30psi to 29.9psi and the
sensor can not measure this change. Instead, the output changes
only when the pressure drops to 29psi, then the resolution is 1psi.
(Lower resolution)

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 38

Resolution – Accuracy Relation

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 39

Impedance

• Total effective resistance of the circuit

• Measure of opposition to the current when AC voltage is
applied
• Represented as Z and unit is ohm (Ω)

1.Input Impedance
> To measure, a fixed resistor is used and voltage V1 and V2
are measured. So,
> Input impedance of CUT is

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 40

Impedance

2.Output Impedance
> To measure, a fixed load resistor (RL) is used and output
voltage is measured first with full load (VL), then without load
(V)
> Output impedance of CUT is

• Important to know in order to interface with

electronic circuit
February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 41
Impedance

• To minimize output signal distortions

Sensor’s output Circuit’s input
Sensor output
impedance (Zout) impedance (Zin)

Voltage Low High

Current High Low

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 42

Excitation

• Appropriate electric signal required to operate the active

sensor
• Specified as a range of voltage or current
• For some sensors, frequency must also be specified
• Transfer function might get altered causing output errors

• Example:
> Maximum current through thermistor
in still air is 50 μA
in water is 200 μA

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 43

Dynamic Characteristics

• Under static characteristics, a sensor is fully described by its

transfer function, span, calibration, etc.
• When an input stimulus varies, a sensor response generally
does not follow with perfect fidelity
• Reason is that both sensor and its coupling with stimulus
cannot always respond instantly
• A sensor may be characterized by a time-dependent
characteristic, called dynamic characteristic
• If a sensor does not respond instantly, it may indicate values of
stimulus which are different from the true value – the sensor
responds with dynamic error
• Difference between static and dynamic characteristics is
dynamic characteristics is time dependent

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 44

Dynamic Characteristics

• Response time
• Measuring lag
• Fidelity
• Dynamic error
• Transient Response

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 45

Response Time

• Speed of Response
> Speed with which sensor responds to a change in stimulus

• Response time
> Time taken by the sensor to reach final stable value (steady-
state) from zero, once stimulus is applied
> Depending on application, stable value
can be a specified percentage of
true value
> Eg: For portable instruments, time taken to
reach within 0.3% of final value, while for
switch board instruments, it can be
within 1% of final value

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 46

Measuring Lag

• Delay in the response of a sensor to a change in the stimulus

• Lag is usually small
> Becomes highly vital in high speed measurements
• Sometimes referred to Dead-time True Value

Sensor Value
• Two types of Lag
Measuring Lag
1.Retardation type
> Response begins immediately after
a change in stimulus has occurred
Dead Time
2.Time Delay
> Response begins after a dead-zone
after a change in stimulus has occurred

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 47

Fidelity

• Ability of the system to reproduce output in the same form as

the input
• Degree to which the sensor indicates changes in measured
quantity without any dynamic error

• If a linearly varying quantity is applied to the sensor, and if the

output is also a linearly varying quantity, then the sensor is
said to have 100% fidelity

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 48

Dynamic Error

• Difference between true value of the stimulus and the value

measured by sensor if no static error is assumed

• Total dynamic error is combination

of its fidelity and the time lag Dynamic Error
between input and output of
the system True Value

Sensor Value

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 49

Transient Response

• Delay time (td)

> Time required by system to go from 0% to 50% of its final or
steady-state value

100%

50%

Delay time

0%

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 50

Transient Response

• Rise time (tr)

> Time required by system to go from 10% to 90% of its final or
steady-state value

100%
90%

50%

10%
0%
Rise time

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 51

Transient Response

• Peak time (tp)

> Time required by system to reach maximum overshoot

Mp

100%

50%

Peak time
0%

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 52

Transient Response

• Settling time (ts)

> Time required by system to reach within 2% of the final or steady-
state value

100%
98%

50%

Settling time
0%

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 53

Transient Response

• Overshoot (Mp)
> Maximum peak deviation from the final or steady-state value

100% Overshoot

50%

0%

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 54

Environmental Characteristics

• Stability
• Environmental conditions
• Temperature effects
• Self-heating

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 55

Stability

• Storage Conditions
> Nonoperating environmental limits to which a sensor may be
subjected during a specified period without permanently altering the
performance Electrode

> Include storage Temperature, Relative humidity, Pressure

Storage
Solution
• Short-term Stability
> Changes in performance within minutes, hours, or days
• Long- term Stability
> Related to aging of sensor materials
Reality
> Irreversible change in material’s electrical, Perfect
mechanical, chemical or thermal properties
> Very important for precise measurements
> Aging depends on storage and operating conditions
> Glass-coated thermistors has more stability than epoxy-coated
thermistors
February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 56
Environmental Conditions

• Designer and Engineer should consider all possible external

factors that could affect sensor’s performance
• Example:
> Pressure sensor depends not only on the air pressure, but
also air temperature, humidity, ionizing radiation,
electromagnetic fields, gravitational forces, etc.
> Piezoelectric accelerometer may generate spurious signals if
affected by sudden change in ambient temperature,
electrostatic discharge, vibration of connecting cable,
electromagnetic interference, etc.
• Usually multiplicative in nature altering
the transfer function
• Application engineer should provide corrective
measures like placing sensor in a faraday’s cage,
using thermal insulation, etc.
February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 57
Temperature Factors

• Sensors tend to change transfer function significantly with

temperature
• Example
For resistive strain gauge, sensitivity(m) increases with
temperature:

• Operating temperature range is the span ambient temperature

given by upper and lower extremes (Ex: -20°C to +100 °C)
• Special compensating elements are either incorporated into the
sensor or into the signal conditioning circuits

Adjacent arm compensation

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 58
Self-heating

• Specified when excitation signal is absorbed by sensor and

changes its temperature affecting the accuracy
• Example:
> Thermistor requires excitation current, which causes heat
dissipation with sensor’s body
> Depending on the coupling with the environment, sensor’s
temperature may increase due to self-heating
• Usually, high resistance sensors and low measurement voltages
are preferred

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 59

Data Sheet – DHT11 (Temperature/Humidity Sensor)

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 60

Self Test Problem - 1

• A tungsten / 5% rhenium-tungsten / 26% rhenium

thermocouple has an output emf as shown in the following
table when its hot (measuring) junction is at the temperatures
shown. Determine the sensitivity of measurement for the
thermocouple.
emf (mV) 4.37 8.74 13.11 17.48
Temperature
250 500 750 1000
(°C)

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 61

Self Test Problem - 2

• A spring balance is calibrated in an environment at a

temperature of 20 °C and has the following deflection/load
characteristics
Load (kg) 0 1 2 3
Deflection
0 20 40 60
(mm)

• It is then used in an environment at a temperature of 30 °C and

theLoad
following
(kg) deflection/load
0 characteristic
1 is2 measured3
Deflection
5 27 49 71
(mm)

• Determine the zero drift and sensitivity drift per °C change in

ambient temperature

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 62

Self Test Problem - 3

• A silicon piezoelectric pressure sensor is fabricated using

conventional micromachining techniques at SilicoLabs. Later, it
was characterized to determine the characteristics of the
sensor. The data obtained is provided. Find the following
parameters to prepare a datasheet for the sensor
> Transfer function
> Dynamic range in dB
> Non-linearity in percentage
> Resolution
> Threshold
> Saturation
> Offset

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 63

Self Test Problem - 3

• A silicon piezoelectric pressure sensor is fabricated using

conventional micromachining techniques at SilicoLabs. Later, it
was characterized to determine the characteristics of the
sensor. The data obtained is provided. Find the following
parameters to prepare a datasheet for the sensor
> Transfer function
> Dynamic range in dB
> Non-linearity in percentage
> Resolution
> Threshold
> Saturation
> Offset

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 64

Self Test Problem - 4

• In a case study, 20 sensors are tested and run at their normal

operating condition for 1000 hours. If six of those sensors fail
at the following hours – 550, 480, 680, 790, 860, 620, what is
the failure rate of the product? Also, find the Mean Time To
Failure.

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 65

Self Test Problem - 5

• If 20 units were tested and the MTBF was found to be 2996

hours, what is the reliability of the sensor at 1200 hours of
operation in percentage?

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 66

Self Test Problem - 6

• What is the relative error percentage of an observation taken

by an ultrasonic sensor which predicts the distance of an object
to be 2.12cm but the actual value is 2cm?

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 67

Self Test Problem - 7

February 5, 2025 © Dr.Noel Prashant Ratchagar, Presidency University, Bangalore 68