Chapter 2 : Physical Layer

Introduction to Physical Media

• The purpose of the physical layer is to transport bits from one machine to another.
• A transmission medium can be broadly defined as anything that can carry information from
a source to a destination.
• Various media can be used for the actual transmission.
• Media are roughly grouped into guided media and unguided media
• Guided media :: waves are guided along a physical path (e.g, twisted pair, coaxial cable
and optical fiber).
• Unguided media:: means for transmitting but not guiding electromagnetic waves (e.g., the
atmosphere and outer space).
Classification of Transmission Media
2.1 Guided or wired Transmission Media
• Twisted pair
• Coaxial cable
• Optical fiber

● Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit

from one device to another, include twisted-pair cable,
coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.
● A signal traveling along any of these media is directed
and contained by the physical limits of the medium.
● Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper)
conductors that accept and transport signals in the
form of electric current.
● Optical fiber is a cable that accepts and transports
signals in the form of light.
1. Twisted Pair
• One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used only as a ground
reference. The receiver uses the difference between the two.

• Interference (noise) and crosstalk may affect both wires and create unwanted signals.

• If the two wires are parallel, the effect of these unwanted signals is not the same in both wires
because they are at different locations relative to the noise or crosstalk. By twisting the pairs, a
balance is maintained. Twisting makes it probable that both wires are equally affected by external
influences (noise or crosstalk).

• Number of twists per unit of length (e.g., inch) has some effect on the quality of the cable..
Unshielded Versus Shielded Twisted-Pair
Cable(UTP and STP)
● The most common twisted-pair cable used in
communications is referred to as unshielded
twisted-pair (UTP).
● IBM has also produced a version of twisted-pair
cable for its use called shielded twisted-pair (STP).
● STP cable has a metal foil or braided mesh
covering that encases each pair of insulated
conductors.
● Although metal casing improves the quality of
cable by preventing the penetration of noise or
crosstalk, it is bulkier and more expensive.
● Figure shows the difference between UTP and STP.
Category of Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
UTP connector
● The most common UTP connector is RJ45 (RJ stands for registered
jack), as shown in Figure .
● The RJ45 is a keyed connector, meaning the connector can be inserted
in only one way.
Applications
● Twisted-pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide voice and data
channels.
● The local loop-the line that connects subscribers to the central telephone
office commonly consists of unshielded twisted-pair cables.
● The DSL lines that are used by the telephone companies to provide high-
data-rate connections also use the high-bandwidth capability of
unshielded twisted-pair cables.
● Local-area networks, such as lOBase-T and lOOBase-T, also use
twisted-pair cables.
2. Coaxial Cable
● Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in twisted
pair cable, in part because the two media are constructed quite differently.
● TRANSMISSION MEDIA having two wires, coax has a central core conductor of solid
or stranded wire (usually copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in turn,
encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of the two.
● The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as the second
conductor, which completes the circuit. This outer conductor is also enclosed in an
insulating sheath, and the whole cable is protected by a plastic cover
Coaxial Cable Connectors
• To connect coaxial cable to devices, we need coaxial connectors. The most common type of
connector used today is the Bayone-Neill-Concelman (BNe), connector.
• Figure shows three popular types of these connectors: the BNC connector, the BNC T
connector, and the BNC terminator.
• The BNC connector is used to connect the end of the cable to a device, such as a TV set.
• The BNC T connector is used in Ethernet networks to branch out to a connection to a computer
or other device.
• The BNC terminator is used at the end of the cable to prevent the reflection of the signal.
Performance
• performance of a coaxial cable can be measured with the help of graph below
• From graph it is observed that the attenuation is much higher in coaxial cables than in
twisted-pair cable.
• In other words, although coaxial cable has a much higher bandwidth, the signal weakens
rapidly and requires the frequent use of repeaters.
Application
• Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone networks where a
single coaxial network could carry 10,000 voice signals. Later it was used
in digital telephone networks where a single coaxial cable could carry
digital data up to 600 Mbps. However, coaxial cable in telephone networks
has largely been replaced today with fiber-optic cable.
• Cable TV networks also use coaxial cables. In the traditional cable TV
network, the entire network used coaxial cable. Later, however, cable TV
providers replaced most of the media with fiber-optic cable; hybrid
networks use coaxial cable only at the network boundaries, near the
consumer premises. Cable TV uses RG-59 coaxial cable.
• Another common application of coaxial cable is in traditional Ethernet
LANs .
• The 10Base-2, or Thin Ethernet, uses RG-58 coaxial cable with BNe
connectors to transmit data at 10 Mbps with a range of 185 m.
• The l0Base5, or Thick Ethernet, uses RG-11 (thick coaxial cable) to
transmit 10 Mbps with a range of 5000 m.
3. Optical fiber
• Fiber-optic cable or optical fiber consists of thin glass fibers that can carry information in
the form of visible light.
• The typical optical fiber consists of a very narrow strand of glass or plastic called the core.
• Around the core is a concentric layer of less dense glass or plastic called the cladding,
whose refractive index is less than that of the core.
• The outermost layer of the cable is known as the jacket, which shields the cladding and the
core from moisture, crushing and abrasion.
• Three standard wavelengths : 850 nanometers (nm.), 1300 nm, 1500 nm.
• First-generation optical fiber :: 850 nm, 10’s Mbps using LED (light-emitting diode)
sources.
• Second and third generation optical fiber :: 1300 and 1500 nm using ILD (injection laser
diode) sources, gigabits/sec.
Light Propagation
• Optical fibers transmit a beam of light by means of total internal reflection.
When a light beam from a source enters the core, the core refracts the light
and guides the light along its path. The cladding reflects the light back into the
core and prevents it from escaping through the medium.
Modes of Propagation
Multimode is so named because multiple beams from a light source move
through the core in different paths.
Modes of Propagation
• Fiber optic cables support
two modes of propagating
light, which are multimode
and single mode.

• In multimode, many beams

from a light source
traverse along multiple
paths and at multiple
angles.

• In single mode, the beams

propagate almost
horizontally.
Fiber construction
• Figure shows the composition
of a typical fiber-optic cable.
The outer jacket is made of
either PVC or Teflon.
• Inside the jacket are Kevlar
strands to strengthen the cable.
Kevlar is a strong material
used in the fabrication of
bulletproof vests.
• Below the Kevlar is another
plastic coating to cushion the
fiber.
• The fiber is at the center of the
cable, and it consists of
cladding and core.
Fiber types

• Optical fibers are defined by the ratio of the diameter of their core to the
diameter of their cladding, both expressed in micrometers.
• The common sizes are shown in Table. Note that the last size listed is for
single-mode only.
Fiber-Optic Cable Connectors
There are three types of connectors for fiber-optic cables, as shown in Figure
The subscriber channel (SC) connector is used for cable TV. It uses a push/pull
locking system. The straight-tip (ST) connector is used for connecting cable to
networking devices. It uses a bayonet locking system and is more reliable than SC.
Mechanical standard Registered Jack (MT-RJ) is a connector that is the same size
as RJ45.
Performance
• The plot of attenuation versus
wavelength in Figure shows a
very interesting phenomenon in
fiber-optic cable.
• Attenuation is flatter than in the
case of twisted-pair cable and
coaxial cable.
• The performance is such that we
need fewer (actually 10 times
less) repeaters when we use fiber-
optic cable.
Applications
• Fiber-optic cable is often found in backbone networks because its wide
bandwidth is cost-effective. Today, with wavelength-division multiplexing
(WDM), we can transfer data at a rate of 1600 Gbps.
• Some cable TV companies use a combination of optical fiber and coaxial
cable, thus creating a hybrid network.
• Optical fiber provides the backbone structure while coaxial cable provides the
connection to the user premises.
• This is a cost-effective configuration since the narrow bandwidth requirement
at the user end does not justify the use of optical fiber.
• Local-area networks such as 100Base-FX network (Fast Ethernet) and
1000Base-X also use fiber-optic cable
2.2 UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS
● Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical
conductor. This type of communication is often referred to as wireless
communication. Signals are normally broadcast through free space and thus are
available to anyone who has a device capable of receiving them.
● The Fig. shows part of the electromagnetic spectrum, ranging from 3 kHz to 900
THz, used for wireless communication.
Propagation Methods
Wireless Transmission Waves
 Radio Waves
• Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and 1 GHz are
normally called radio waves
• Radio waves, particularly those waves that propagate in the sky mode, can
travel long distances. This makes radio waves a good candidate for long-
distance broadcasting such as AM radio.
Omnidirectional Antenna
• Radio waves use omnidirectional antennas
that send out signals in all directions. Based
on the wavelength, strength, and the purpose
of transmission, we can have several types of antennas
• Radio waves are used for multicast communications, such as radio and
television, and paging systems..
Microwaves
• Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called
microwaves.
• Microwaves are unidirectional.
• When an antenna transmits microwave waves, they can be narrowly focused. This
means that the sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned
Characteristics of microwave propagation:
• Microwave propagation is line-of-sight. Since the towers with the mounted antennas
need to be in direct sight of each other, towers that are far apart need to be very tall.
The curvature of the earth as well as other blocking obstacles do not allow two short
towers to communicate by using microwaves. Repeaters are often needed for long
distance communication.
• Very high-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls. This characteristic can be a
disadvantage if receivers are inside buildings.The microwave band is relatively wide,
almost 299 GHz. Therefore wider subbands can be assigned, and a high data rate is
possible
Unidirectional Antenna
● Microwaves need unidirectional antennas that send out signals in one
direction. Two types of antennas are used for microwave
communications: the parabolic dish and the horn.
Unidirectional antennas
• A parabolic dish antenna is based on the geometry of a parabola: Every line
parallel to the line of symmetry (line of sight) reflects off the curve at angles such
that all the lines intersect in a common point called the focus. The parabolic dish
works as a funnel, catching a wide range of waves and directing them to a
common point. In this way, more of the signal is recovered than would be possible
with a single-point receiver.
• A horn antenna looks like a gigantic scoop. Outgoing transmissions are broadcast
up a stem (resembling a handle) and deflected outward in a series of narrow
parallel beams by the curved head. Received transmissions are collected by the
scooped shape of the horn, in a manner similar to the parabolic dish, and are
deflected down into the stem.
Applications
• Microwaves are used for unicast communication such as cellular telephones,
satellite networks, and wireless LANs.
Infrared
• Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz (wavelengths
from 1 mm to 770 nm), can be used for short-range communication.
• Infrared waves, having high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls. This
advantageous characteristic prevents interference between one system and
another; a short-range communication system in one room cannot be affected
by another system in the next room.
• infrared waves cannot use outside a building because the sun's rays contain
infrared waves that can interfere with the communication.
Applications-
● The infrared band, almost 400 THz, has an excellent potential for data
transmission. Such a wide bandwidth can be used to transmit digital data with a
very high data rate.
● Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a closed area
using line-of-sight propagation.
2.3 Transmission Impairments
● Transmission impairment occurs when the received signal is different from the
transmitted signal. As we know, a signal can be transmitted as Analog signal or it
can be transmitted as a digital signal.
● In Analog signals due to transmission impairment the resulting received signal
gets different amplitude or the shape.
● In the case of digitally transmitted signals at the receiver side we get changes in
bits (0's or 1's).

Causes: There are various causes of transmission impairments

• Noise
• Distortion
• Attenuation
 2.3 Transmission Impairments
1. Noise
Noise is the major factor for the transmission distortion as any unwanted signal gets added to the
transmitted signal by which the resulting transmitted signal gets modified and at the receiver side it
is difficult to remove the unwanted noise signal. These noises are various kinds like shot noise,
impulse noise, thermal noise etc.
2.3 Transmission Impairments
2. Distortion
This kind of distortion is mainly appearing in case of composite signals in
which a composite signal has various frequency components in it and
each frequency component has some time constraint which makes a
complete signal.
But while transmitting this composite signal, if a certain delay happens
between the frequencies components, then there may be the chance that
the frequency component will reach the receiver end with a different
delay constraint from its original which leads to the change in shape of
the signal. The delay happens due to environmental parameters or from
the distance between transmitter and receiver etc.
Distortion
2.3 Transmission Impairments
3. Attenuation
Attenuation is generally decreased in signal strength, by which the received signal will be
difficult to receive at the receiver end. This attenuation happens due to the majority factor by
environment as environment imposes a lot of resistance and the signal strength decreases as it
tries to overcome the resistance imposed. The above picture shows that the signal loses power at its
travels time. Attenuation is diagrammatically represented as follows
Wireless Channels
■ Are subject to a lot more errors than guided media channels.
■ Interference is one cause for errors, can be circumvented with high SNR.
■ The higher the SNR the less capacity is available for transmission due to the
broadcast nature of the channel.
■ Channel also subject to fading and no coverage holes.

36
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
• Telephone companies originally transmitted within the 0 to 4kHZ range to
reduce crosstalk.
• Loading coils were added within the subscriber loop to provide a flatter
transfer function to further improve voice transmission within the 3kHZ
band while increasing attenuation at the higher frequencies.
• ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line): Uses existing twisted pair
lines to provide higher bit rates that are possible with unloaded twisted
pairs (i.e., no loading coils on subscriber loop.)
• ITU-T G992.1 ADSL standard uses Discrete Multi-tone (DMT) that
divides the bandwidth into a large number of small sub-channels.
• A splitter is required to separate voice signals from the data signal.
• The binary information is distributed among the sub-channels. Each sub-
channel uses QAM.
• DMT adapts to line conditions by avoiding sub-channels with poor SNR.
Digital subscriber loop (DSL)
✔Capacity of the loop depends
on:
• Distance from the end
office
• Thickness of the twisted
pair
• Quality of the twisted pair
✔assuming all other factors
optimal, plot of distance Vs
bandwidth is given on the
right
 Hybrid Fiber-Coax (HFC)
• Hybrid Fiber-Coax
• (HFC) is a network which is Upstream fiber Fiber
Fiber
based on a combination of Head Fiber Fiber
optical fiber and coaxial cable end node node
to create a broadband Downstream
network. fiber Coaxial
• A HFC architecture is distribution
commonly used by cable TV plant
operators.
• Older cable TV networks used
only coaxial cable.
• In modern networks, optical
fiber is used for the transport
from the head end to a street Bidirectional
cabinet in the neighborhood. Split-Band
Amplifier
• Coaxial cables are used from
the street cabinet to the
individual subscribers.
SWITCHING
• Phone system is divided into parts
• Outside plants: physically outside switching offices (local loops)
• Inside plants: inside switching offices(switches)

• Two switching techniques are used:

• Circuit switching
• Packet switching
CIRCUIT SWITCHING
• When a person places a call switching equipment within the system seeks a
physical path till the receiver’s phone
• In fig. A, six rectangles represent a switching office and each office has three
incoming and three outgoing lines
• When a call passes, physical connection is conceptually established
• Disadvantages:
• Need to set up end to end path
• Before transmission can begin, call request signal must reach destination
and be acknowledged
Packet SWITCHING
• No dedicated path needed
• Packets are sent as soon they are available
• It is up to the routers to use store and forward transmission to send
packets
• As a result, bandwidth is reserved and all data follows the same path
• A tight limit is placed on the packets so that no user can monopolize
the line