Discrete

Structures
CS113
Chapter 2

PROOFS
 Homework

Note: All homework is from the Exercises, not the Review

Exercises
This goes for all homework for the semester

p. 70, #7, 13, 16, 19, 23, 31, 45

p. 81, #12, 35, 47
p. 96, #2, 3, 4, 16???, 22
 Vocabulary-Proof
Proof Corollary

Axiom Counterexample

Postulate Direct Proof

Undefined terms Proof by

Contradiction
(Indirect Proof)
Theorem Proof by
Contrapositive
Lemma Proof by Cases
 The Kitten
Chapter 2
Lorem Ipsum is simply
dummy text of the
The Details
printing and
typesetting industry.
 KEY VOCABUARY


As I mentioned the first day of class, a lot of
what we will do involves proving something to
be correct

This section is about the vocabulary of proof
 PLACES TO BEGIN

All reasoning is based on some assumptions

Names for assumptions are axioms and postulates

Reasoning also relies on definitions

Sometimes we have undefined terms

These are ideas that we all agree on, but can’t prove
 PROVEN STATEMENTS

Again, there are several names for proven statements

One you are familiar with is theorem

There are two more

A lemma is a proven statement that is used in the proof
of a theorem

A corollary is a proven statement that follows easily form
a theorem
 COUNTEREXAMPLES

This is a carry-over form the last chapter

A counterexample is a way to disprove a statement

“Disprove” means to prove something false

The statement we are disproving is a “∀ statement”
 A COUNTEREXAMPLE

Suppose someone says that 2n + 3 is prime for all n > 0

You check:

21 + 3 = 5, 22 + 3 = 4 + 3 = 7, 23 + 3 = 8 + 3 =11,
24 + 3 = 16 + 3 = 19

The statement might be true

But 25 + 3 = 32 + 3 = 35, and 35 is not prime

You have found a counterexample
 METHODS OF PROOF


We will see different ways to prove something
to be true

The techniques we will talk about are

Direct Proof

Proof by Contradiction (Indirect Proof)

Proof by Contrapositive

Proof by Cases
 METHODS OF PROOF: DIRECT PROOF

This is the type of proof you find most often

You just start at the beginning and progress to the end

People like direct proof because it “makes sense”

Unfortunately, often direct proof is too hard

Then we resort to other methods of proof
METHODS OF PROOF: INDIRECT PROOF

Again, if you can’t prove something directly, you try
another approach

This approach is indirect proof

This is when we assume that what we are trying to
prove is false

We then derive a contradiction

This method is also called proof by contradiction
THODS OF PROOF: PROOF BY CONTRADICTI

The third method of proof is called proof by
contrapositive

You prove the contrapositive of the original statement

Recall that in Chapter 1 we learned that a statement and
its contrapositive have the same truth value

So, proving the contrapositive is equivalent to proving
the original statement
METHODS OF PROOF: PROOF BY CASES

This technique is frequently used when it’s easy to
break a statement into cases

Then you just prove the statement for the individual
cases
 OTHER TYPES OF PROOF

The book has two other types of proof

These are not general types of proof

They are ways to prove specific statements
PROVING A STATEMENT TRUE-RESOLUTION

It’s based on the idea that

If p ∨ q and (-p) ∨ r are each true, then q ∨ r is also true

Resolution allows the use of only OR in the reasoning
process

For example, p → q is logically equivalent to q ∨ (-p)

The letters (or their negations) are called clauses

Resolution is popular in programs that prove theorems
 RESOLUTION-REASONS FOR ITS USE

Resolution is correct

This means that it will only arrive at a contradiction if the
clauses are inconsistent

It is also refutation complete

This means if the clauses are inconsistent it will arrive at
a contradiction
INDUCTION-ANOTHER METHOD OF PROOF

This is a limited method of proof

It can only prove something true for a counting-type
subset of the integers

Induction is like a row of dominos

You knock over the first one

The first one (all by itself) knocks over the second one

The second one (all by itself) knocks over the third one

This continues until they all fall over
 THE PRINCIPLE OF MATH INDUCTION

Suppose you want to prove S(n), for n=1, 2, 3, …

To use induction, you first show

S(1) (This is called the base step)

You then show

S(n) implies S(n+1) (This is called the inductive step)

You can then conclude that S(n) is true for all positive
integers n
 AN EXAMPLE

let’s try to prove that the sum of the first n odd numbers
is n2 using induction, for n=1, 2, 3, …

So here, S(n) is

The sum of the first n odd numbers is n2
 THE BASE STEP

First, we check the base step, which is S(1).

You have to show

The sum of the first 1 odd number(s) is 12.

The first 1 odd number is 1. Adding it up (What?) gives
the sum to be 1.

Also, 12 is 1.

These two values are equal

We have completed the base step.
 THE INDUCTIVE STEP

We now have to show that if S(n) is true, then so is
S(n+1)

This means we will assume that S(n) is true.

In other words, we will assume that the sum of the first n
odd integers is n2

As a formula, we assume 1 + 3 + 5 + … + 2n-1 = n2

We have to show that P(n+1) is true.

This is 1 + 3 + 5 + … + 2(n+1)-1 = (n+1)2
 ACTUALLY PROVING THAT FORMULA

1+3+5+ … + 2(n+1)-1

= 1 + 3 + 5 + … + 2n-1 + 2(n+1)-1 Inserting the previous number

= 1 + 3 + 5 + … + 2n-1 + 2n + 2 -1 Distributing

= n2 + 2n + 1 Using the inductive hypothesis

= (n+1)2 By algebra

We have shown what we need to show. The proof is complete.
NECESSARY PARTS OF AN INDUCTION PROOF

These parts must be present in any inductive proof

You must state that the proof is a proof by induction

You must write “Base Step”

You then prove the base step

You must write “Inductive Step”

You must write “Assume: _____” and fill in the blank

You must write “To prove: _____” and fill in the blank

You then prove the inductive step
 A PROBLEM TO TRY

Let’s do Problem 15 on p. 97
TWO FORMS OF MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

There are actually two forms of induction

The weak form uses S(n) to prove S(n+1)

The strong form uses S(1), S(2), …, S(n) to prove
S(n+1)

They are equivalent, so you can use either form
Thank
you