Lecture PowerPoints

Chapter 11
Physics: Principles with
Applications, 7th edition,
Global Edition
Giancoli

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

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 Chapter 11
Oscillations and Waves

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 Contents of Chapter 11

• Simple Harmonic Motion—Spring Oscillations

• Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion
• The Period and Sinusoidal Nature of SHM
• The Simple Pendulum
• Damped Harmonic Motion
• Forced Oscillations; Resonance
• Wave Motion
• Types of Waves and Their Speeds: Transverse and
Longitudinal

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 Contents of Chapter 11

• Energy Transported by Waves

• Reflection and Transmission of Waves
• Interference; Principle of Superposition
• Standing Waves; Resonance
• Refraction
• Diffraction
• Mathematical Representation of a Traveling Wave

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 11-1 Simple Harmonic Motion—Spring
Oscillations

If an object vibrates or
oscillates back and forth
over the same path, each
cycle taking the same
amount of time, the motion
is called periodic. The mass
and spring system is a
useful model for a periodic
system.

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 11-1 Simple Harmonic Motion—Spring
Oscillations

We assume that the surface is frictionless. There

is a point where the spring is neither stretched nor
compressed; this is the equilibrium position. We
measure displacement from that point (x = 0 on the
previous figure).
The force exerted by the spring depends on the
displacement:

(11-1)

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 11-1 Simple Harmonic Motion—Spring
Oscillations

• The minus sign on the force indicates that it is a

restoring force—it is directed to restore the mass to
its equilibrium position.
• k is the spring constant
• The force is not constant, so the acceleration is not
constant either

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 11-1 Simple Harmonic Motion—Spring
Oscillations

• Displacement is measured from the

equilibrium point
• Amplitude is the maximum
displacement
• A cycle is a full to-and-fro motion;
this figure shows half a cycle
• Period is the time required to
complete one cycle
• Frequency is the number of cycles
completed per second
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 11-1 Simple Harmonic Motion—Spring
Oscillations

If the spring is hung

vertically, the only
change is in the
equilibrium position,
which is at the point
where the spring force
equals the
gravitational
force.

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 11-1 Simple Harmonic Motion—Spring
Oscillations

Any vibrating system where the restoring force is

proportional to the negative of the displacement is in
simple harmonic motion (SHM), and is often called a
simple harmonic oscillator.

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 11-2 Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion

We already know that the potential energy of a spring is

given by:
PE = ½ kx2
The total mechanical energy is then:

(11-3)
The total mechanical energy will be conserved, as we are
assuming the system is frictionless.

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 11-2 Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion

If the mass is at the limits of its

motion, the energy is all potential.
If the mass is at the equilibrium
point, the energy is all kinetic.
We know what the potential energy
is at the turning points:

(11-4a)

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 11-2 Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion

The total energy is, therefore ½ kA2

And we can write:
(11-4c)

This can be solved for the velocity as a function of

position:

(11-5b)

where (11-5a)

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 11-3 The Period and Sinusoidal Nature
of SHM

If we look at the projection onto

the x axis of an object moving in a
circle of radius A at a constant
speed vmax, we find that the x
component of its velocity varies as:

(11-5b)

This is identical to SHM.

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 11-3 The Period and Sinusoidal Nature
of SHM

Therefore, we can use the period and frequency of a

particle moving in a circle to find the period and
frequency:

(11-6a)

(11-6b)

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 11-3 The Period and Sinusoidal Nature
of SHM

We can similarly find the position as a function of time:

(11-8a)

(11-8b)

(11-8c)

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 11-3 The Period and Sinusoidal Nature
of SHM

The top curve is a graph of

the previous equation.
The bottom curve is the
same, but shifted ¼ period
so that it is a sine function
rather than a cosine.

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 11-3 The Period and Sinusoidal Nature
of SHM

The velocity and acceleration can

be calculated as functions of
time; the results are below, and
are plotted at left.

(11-9)

(11-10)

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 11-4 The Simple Pendulum

A simple pendulum consists of a mass at the end of a

lightweight cord. We assume that the cord does not
stretch, and that its mass is negligible.

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 11-4 The Simple Pendulum

In order to be in SHM, the restoring force

must be proportional to the negative of the displacement.
Here we have F = ‑mg sin θ
which is proportional to sin θ and not to
θ itself.

However, if the angle

is small, sin θ ≈ θ.

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 11-4 The Simple Pendulum

Therefore, for small angles, the force is approximately

proportional to the angular displacement.
The period and frequency are:

(11-11a)

(11-11b)

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 11-4 The Simple Pendulum

So, as long as the cord can be

considered massless and the
amplitude is small, the period
does not depend on the mass.

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 11-5 Damped Harmonic Motion

Damped harmonic motion is harmonic motion with a

frictional or drag force. If the damping is small, we can
treat it as an “envelope” that modifies the undamped
oscillation.

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 11-5 Damped Harmonic Motion
However, if the damping is large, it no longer
resembles SHM at all.
A: underdamping: there are a few small
oscillations before the oscillator comes to rest.
B: critical damping: this is the fastest way to get to
equilibrium.
C: overdamping: the system is slowed so much that it takes a
long time to get to equilibrium.

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 11-5 Damped Harmonic Motion
There are systems where damping is unwanted, such as clocks and
watches.
Then there are systems in which it is wanted, and often
needs to be as close to
critical damping
as possible, such
as automobile
shock absorbers
and earthquake
protection for
buildings.

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 11-6 Forced Oscillations; Resonance

Forced vibrations occur when there is a periodic driving

force. This force may or may not have the same period
as the natural frequency of the system.
If the frequency is the same as the natural frequency, the
amplitude becomes quite large. This is called resonance.

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 11-6 Forced Oscillations; Resonance

The sharpness of the resonant peak depends

on the damping. If the damping is small (A), it
can be quite sharp; if the damping is larger (B), it
is less sharp.
Like damping, resonance can be wanted or unwanted.
Musical instruments and TV/radio receivers depend
on it.

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 11-7 Wave Motion

A wave travels
along its medium,
but the individual
particles just move
up and down.
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 11-7 Wave Motion
All types of traveling waves transport energy.
Study of a single wave pulse shows that it
is begun with a vibration and transmitted
through internal forces in the medium.
Continuous waves start
with vibrations too. If the vibration is SHM,
then the wave will be sinusoidal.

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 11-7 Wave Motion

Wave characteristics:
• Amplitude, A
• Wavelength, λ
• Frequency f and period T
• Wave velocity
(11-12)

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 11-8 Types of Waves and Their Speeds:
Transverse and Longitudinal

The motion of particles in a wave can either be

perpendicular to the wave direction (transverse) or
parallel to it (longitudinal).
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 11-8 Types of Waves and Their Speeds:
Transverse and Longitudinal

Sound waves are longitudinal waves:

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 11-8 Types of Waves and Their Speeds :
Transverse and Longitudinal

Earthquakes produce both longitudinal and transverse waves.

Both types can travel through solid material, but only
longitudinal waves can propagate through a fluid—in the
transverse direction, a fluid has no restoring force.
Surface waves are waves that travel along the boundary
between two media.

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 11-9 Energy Transported by Waves

Just as with the oscillation that starts it, the energy

transported by a wave is proportional to the square of the
amplitude.
Definition of intensity:

The intensity is also proportional to the square of the

amplitude:
(11-15)

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 11-9 Energy Transported by Waves

If a wave is able to spread out three-dimensionally from

its source, and the medium is uniform, the wave is
spherical.
Just from geometrical considerations, as long
as the power output is constant, we see:

(11-16b)

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 11-9 Energy Transported by Waves

By looking at the energy of a particle of matter in

the medium of the wave, we find:

Then, assuming the entire medium has the same density, we

(11-17a)
find:

Therefore, the intensity is proportional to the square of the

(11-18)
frequency and to the square of the amplitude.

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 11-10 Reflection and Transmission of Waves
A wave reaching the end of its medium, but
where the medium is still free to move, will
be reflected (b), and its reflection will be
upright.

A wave hitting an obstacle will be reflected (a), and its

reflection will be inverted.

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 11-10 Reflection and Transmission of Waves

A wave encountering
a denser medium will
be partly reflected and
partly transmitted; if
the wave speed is less
in the denser medium,
the wavelength will
be shorter.

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 11-10 Reflection and Transmission of Waves

Two- or three-dimensional waves can be represented by

wave fronts, which are curves of surfaces where all the
waves have the same phase.

Lines perpendicular to the

wave fronts are called rays;
they point in the direction
of propagation of the wave.

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 11-10 Reflection and Transmission of Waves

The law of reflection: the angle of incidence equals the

angle of reflection.

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 11-11 Interference; Principle of Superposition

The superposition principle says that when two waves pass

through the same point, the displacement is the arithmetic sum
of the individual displacements.
In the figure below, (a) exhibits destructive interference and (b)
exhibits constructive interference.

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 11-11 Interference; Principle of Superposition

These figures show the sum of two waves. In (a) they

add constructively; in (b) they add destructively; and in
(c) they add partially destructively.

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 11-12 Standing Waves; Resonance

Standing waves occur when

both ends of a string are
fixed. In that case, only
waves which are motionless
at the ends of the string can
persist. There are nodes,
where the amplitude is
always zero, and antinodes,
where the amplitude varies
from zero to the maximum
value.
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 11-12 Standing Waves; Resonance

The frequencies of the

standing waves on a
particular string are called
resonant frequencies.
They are also referred to as
the fundamental and harmonics.
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 11-12 Standing Waves; Resonance

The wavelengths and frequencies of standing waves are:

(11-19a)

(11-19b)

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 11-13 Refraction

If the wave enters a medium where the wave speed is

different, it will be refracted—its wave fronts and rays
will change direction.
We can calculate the angle
of refraction, which depends
on both wave speeds:

(11-20)

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 11-13 Refraction

The law of refraction works

both ways—a wave going
from a slower medium to
a faster one would follow
the red line in the
other direction.

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 11-14 Diffraction

When waves encounter an

obstacle, they bend around
it, leaving a “shadow
region.” This is called
diffraction.

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 11-14 Diffraction

The amount of diffraction depends on the size of the

obstacle compared to the wavelength. If the obstacle is
much smaller than the wavelength, the wave is barely
affected (a). If the object is comparable to, or larger than,
the wavelength, diffraction is much more significant
(b, c, d).

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 11-15 Mathematical Representation of a
Traveling Wave

To the left, we have a

snapshot of a traveling
wave at a single point
in time. Below left, the
same wave is shown
traveling.

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 11-15 Mathematical Representation of a
Traveling Wave

A full mathematical description of the wave describes

the displacement of any point as a function of both
distance and time:

(11-22)

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 Summary of Chapter 11

• For SHM, the restoring force is proportional to the

displacement.
• The period is the time required for one cycle, and the
frequency is the number of cycles per second.
• Period for a mass on a spring: (11-6a)
• SHM is sinusoidal.
• During SHM, the total energy is continually changing
from kinetic to potential and back.

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 Summary of Chapter 11

• A simple pendulum approximates SHM if its amplitude

is not large. Its period in that case is:

(11-11a)
• When friction is present, the motion is damped.
• If an oscillating force is applied to a SHO, its amplitude
depends on how close to the natural frequency the
driving frequency is. If it is close, the amplitude
becomes quite large. This is called resonance.

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 Summary of Chapter 11

• Vibrating objects are sources of waves, which may be

either a pulse or continuous.
• Wavelength: distance between successive crests.
• Frequency: number of crests that pass a given point
per unit time.
• Amplitude: maximum height of crest.
• Wave velocity: v = λf

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 Summary of Chapter 11

• Transverse wave: oscillations perpendicular to direction

of wave motion.
• Longitudinal wave: oscillations parallel to direction of
wave motion.
• Intensity: energy per unit time crossing unit area (W/m 2):

(11-16b)

• Angle of reflection is equal to angle of incidence.

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 Summary of Chapter 11

• When two waves pass through the same region of space,

they interfere. Interference may be either constructive or
destructive.
• Standing waves can be produced on a string with both
ends fixed. The waves that persist are at the resonant
frequencies.
• Nodes occur where there is no motion; antinodes where
the amplitude is maximum.
• Waves refract when entering a medium of different wave
speed, and diffract around obstacles.

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