Unit V

Engine Systems
and
Emissions & Control
 UNIT-V
IC ENGINES SYSTEMS
Cooling System, Lubrication System, Ignition System, Governing
system, Starting System

IC ENGINE EMISSIONS AND CONTROL

Air pollution due to IC engines and its effect, emissions from
petrol/gas and diesel engines, sources of emissions, Euro norms,
Bharat stage norms, emission control methods for SI and CI engs
 Lecture No 31
Learning Objectives:
• To understand requirement and working of cooling system of
engines
 Engine Support Systems

• Cooling System
• Lubrication System
• Ignition System
• Governing System
• Starting System
• Inlet & Exhaust Systems
• Drive Train
 Engine
Cooling System
 Necessity of Engine Cooling
• Average utilization of energy produced in eng by
burning of fuel is as follows:
25 to 30% converted to useful work (BP)
30 to 35% carried away by exhaust gases
10 to 15% lost to atm directly & pumping losses
25 to 30% flows from comb gases to eng cyl
walls, cyl head, piston etc & raises their temp
• Due to comb temp, which rises to about 2000°C,
comb chamber walls, cyl walls, piston, valves etc
will become very hot & expand resulting in seizure
of moving components/eng

• Also, lubricating oil film between moving components

may disintegrate/burn off
 Necessity of Engine Cooling
• Therefore, this 25 to 30% energy flowing to various
eng components has to be removed quickly to
maintain the temp of components within limits
• This is achieved by providing eng cooling system to
keep optimum working temp of eng components
• Although, high temp will give higher thermal
efficiency and reduced friction losses, it will damage
vital eng parts due to undue expansion and cause
distortion due to thermal stresses
• Hence, it becomes necessary to maintain temp of
eng components within limits to obtain max
performance from eng & enhanced eng life by
avoiding overheating
Functions of Engine Cooling System
• To maintain average temp of eng cylinder
walls in the range of 200 to 250°C for max
power and smooth running of engine
• Inside surface temp of cylinder walls is kept
in the range of 200 to 250°C, to ensure:
- Correct clearance between the parts
- Promote vaporization of fuel
- Keep lubrication oil at its best viscosity and
prevent condensation of harmful vapours
• Engine develops max power
 ILL EFFECTS OF UNDER-COOLING
• Higher temp causes reduction in strength of
eng components such as piston, cylinder,
cylinder head etc
• Lub oil will not stand beyond 200°C and will
burn off causing failure of lubrication system
resulting in eng seizure
• Excessive temp causes pre-ignition &
detonation ultimately resulting in loss of
power & damage to engine
• Uneven expansion of piston & cylinder may
cause engine seizure
Note: In case of Automobile Engines, exit
temp of water from water jacket is kept in the
range of 80 to 85°C
 ILL EFFECTS OF OVER-COOLING
• Low temp causes starting problems due to
low vaporization, more friction loads etc
• Sulfur content of fuel may form SO3 and
then H2SO4. This sulfuric acid will condense,
if cooled below its dew point and will cause
corrosion of cylinder walls
• Unvaporized fuel at low temp may leak past
the piston rings causing oil dilution resulting
in loss of power, loss of fuel, cause pollution
and failure of lubrication system
• At low temp, viscosity of lub oil will increase,
thus increasing frictional power
 Air COOLING
• Air cooling usually employed for small capacity
engines like 2 cyl/ 3 cyl and in air craft applications
• Air cooling is achieved by forcing the air over
cylinders
• Since cyl wall temp is needed to be kept max up to
250°C for efficient eng operation, it is necessary to
increase heat transfer rate from cyl walls either by
increasing air velocity or surface area exposed to air
• In two wheelers and air crafts, high air velocity is
available due to their speed; while in 4 wheelers,
air fan is used
• Surface area exposed to air is increased by fins.
(‘h’ is lower so higher is surface temp)
 Advantages of Air Cooling
• No maint/ min maint required
• Design of cooling system is cheap and easy
• Eng warms up quickly
• No danger of water freezing at low temp
• No scaling problem of eng water jackets
• Weight to power ratio is less as compared to
water cooling system
• Better performance at high altitude and in
cold climate
 Disadvantages of Air Cooling
• Not suitable for high capacity engines/
limited to small engines / 2 or 3 wheeler eng
• Air cooled eng are more noisy as no sound
absorbing medium between cylinder and
surroundings
• Uneven cooling achieved
• Volumetric efficiency is lower due to high
surrounding temp
• Limits compression ratio
• If fan is used to increase air velocity, 5-10%
of eng power is used in running fan
Liquid/Water Cooling Systems

1. Thermo-syphon Cooling
2. Thermostatic Regulator Cooling
3. Pressurized Thermostatic Cooling
 Radiator Cap Thermostat

Water Jacket
Upper
Tank

Bypass
Piston

Air
Cylinder

Lower
Tank
Water Pump
Drain Plug

Pressurized Thermostatic-Regulator Cooling

 Water to Radiator Upper Tank

Valve

Bellow filled with

Volatile Liquid (Ether,
Acetone, Alcohol)

Bypass

Water from water Jacket

Thermostat
 Spring

Cap

Over Flow
Pipe

Pressure
Relief Valve Vacuum Valve

Radiator Cap For Pressure System

 Lecture No 32
Learning Objectives:
• To understand necessity and working of lubrication system
of engine
 Importance of
Attending Classes
 Engine
Lubrication System
 Engine Lubrication System
• Eng parts are lubricated to reduce friction,
thus ensuring their free movements

• System provides a film of oil between the

moving parts and their bearing surfaces
• Lubrication system avoids direct contact by
keeping the parts floating on the oil film

• Due to decrease in friction, eng runs free

resulting in increase in power output and
longer eng life
 Functions of Lubricants
• Reduces wear & tear of moving components
• Provides oil film for floating of parts for free
movements so that power losses in friction
can be reduced
• Indirectly increases power output & efficiency
• Provides cooling of components
• Provides sealing between cylinder walls &
piston rings to reduce blowby
• Provides protection to components against
corrosion
• Cleaning of various parts by removing dirt
• Act as cushion to reduce noise and vibrations
 Types of Lubricants
• Solid Lubricants such as Graphite,
Molybdenum, Mica etc

• Semi-solid lubricants- greases

• Liquid Lubricants such as mineral oils,

vegetable oils

ASSIGNMENT
Make a list of all major components of
the engine which are lubricated
 Properties of Lubricating Oils
1. Viscosity
• Resistance to oil flow; measured in terms of
Saybolt Universal Seconds (SUS), which is
the time required in seconds for a given qty
of oil to flow through a capillary tube under
specified conditions
• Usually expressed at two temps
(-18°C/0°F & 99°C)
• Centistokes(cst) – Kinematic Viscosity
measured by Viscometer (mm2/s)
• Lub oil must maintain sufficient viscosity at
high temp & at the same time it should not
be too viscous at low temp for starting
 Properties of Lubricating Oils
2. Viscosity Index (V.I.)
• Variation of viscosity with temp is msd by V.I.
• A high VI indicates relatively smaller changes in
viscosity with temp (Vital for extreme conditions)
• To improve, VI improvers are used such as
Poly methyl Acrylate (PMA), Olefin Copolymer (OCP)
• High VI >90; Medium VI: 90 -55; Low VI <55

• SAE VI: SAE5W, SAE10W, SAE20W

(Winter Grades defined at -18°C for cold climate)
• SAE30, SAE40, SAE50
(Summer Grades defined at 99°C for hot climate)

• Multigrade Oils : SAE20W/50, SAE15W/40

 Properties of Lubricating Oils
3. Cloud Point & Pour Point
• Temp, at which oil starts solidifying- Cloud Points
• Temp, just below which oil will not flow – Pour Point
4. Flash Point
Temp, at which vapour of oil flashes when exposed
to naked flame- Flash Point
5. Fire Point
• Temp, at which the oil, if once lit with flame, will
burn steadily at least for 5 seconds
• In general, 190 to 290°C (10 to 12°C higher
than Flash Point)
Note: Above points are vital only for safety; not for
engine performance
 Properties Lubricating Oils
6. Oiliness/Lubricity
• To cling to metal surfaces by molecular action and
provide thin film (Oiliness/ Lubricity/ Film Strength)
• Very vital for controlling “Squeezing Out” of oil
7. Oxidation Stability
Resistance to oxidation, otherwise oil will form
deposits and loose its lubricating properties
8. Cleanliness
• Absence of water and sediments
• Water promotes corrosion & sediments promote
wear

9. Acidity & Neutralization No

 Lubrication Oil Additives
• Normal mineral oil has most of the good lub oil
characteristics, however, varying operating
conditions require some specific properties like high
V I, resistance to oxidation, corrosion resistance etc
• To improve some of the qualities, certain chemical
compounds are added to lub oil called ADDITIVES
• These are V I Improvers, Anti-oxidants, Detergents,
Depressants, Anti-foam etc
• Anti-oxidants – Copper, Zinc ditino phosphate
• Detergents – Salts or Organic acids
• V I Improvers – PMA, OCP
• Anti-foam – Silicon Polymers
• Oiliness – Organic Sulphur, Chlorine & Phosphate
 Types of Lubrication Systems
• Mist or Charge or Petroil Lub System

• Wet Sump Lubrication System

• Dry Sump Lubrication System

 Mist or Charge or Petroil Lub System
• Lubricating oil is mixed in petrol tank itself and
supplied to Carburetor
• 20 to 50CC per lit of petrol as per manufacturers
advice
• This lub oil finds its way to all moving parts of
engine like cyl, piston, rings, main & big end brgs etc
• Qty of oil is automatically regulated with speed/
load of engine; System is economical as no oil
pump, filter, piping etc are required; chances of
failure of lub system are remote
• Due to burning of lub oil, carbon deposit in Comb
Chamber, Valves/Ports, Spark Plugs etc occurs and
thus requires more maint. Higher oil consumption
 Splash & Pressure Feed Wet Sump Lub System

Cam
Shaft
Piston
Gear
Train

Crank
Shaft

Oil Gallery

Scoop Oil Troughs

Lub Oil

Strainer Oil Pump

Sump

Baffles
 Pressure Feed Wet Sump System
Valve Operating Mechanism (Rockers, Push Rods, Valves)
Cam
Shaft
Piston
Gear
Train

Crank
Shaft

Pr Gauge Oil Gallery

Lub Oil

Strainer Oil Pump

Sump

Baffles
 Valve Operating Mechanism (Rockers, Push Rods, Valves)

Cam Shaft

Piston
Gear
Train

Crank Shaft

Oil Tank

Pr Gauge
Pr Feed Dry Sump Lub System
Lub Oil

Oil Pump
Strainer
Sump Scavenging
Pump
Baffles
 Imp Aspects : Dry Sump Lub System
• Oil from the sump is sent by Scavenging
Pump to oil tank, from where it is sent to oil
gallery by oil pump, thus oil is not stored in
sump but in separate oil tank kept behind
radiator
• During up & down movement of vehicle, no
chance of break-down of lub system

• Thinner oil can be used, thus reducing

friction power
 Types of Oil Filter
BYPASS FILTER
• Filter is placed in bypass passage & only
about 1/3 of whole lub oil is filtered every
cycle.
• In case of choking of oil filter, lub oil supply
does not fail

FULL FLOW FILTER

• Filter is placed in direct passage of pr lub
oil system and whole oil is filtered before
being fed to lubricate eng components
• For safety, a bypass valve is provided
 Lecture No 33
Learning Objectives:
• To understand functions of ignition systems
• To understand construction and working of conventional
ignition systems (Battery System)
 Engine
Ignition System
 Importance of
Regular Studies
 Functions of Ignition System
• To produce spark in the engine cylinders
towards the end of compression stroke
• In 4S eng, spark should occur in each
cylinder after two rev of crank shaft,
whereas it is required once in every revolution
in case of 2S eng
• Intensity of spark should be sufficient to
ignite the A/F mixture
• 4 cyl 4S eng at 3000 rpm requires 100sparks/
sec [(3000/2) x 4]/60 or 6000 sparks/min;
similarly, 6 cyl 4S eng at 5000rpm will require
250 sparks/sec or 15000 sparks/min
 Requirements of Ignition System
• Spark at the spark plug must be regular &
synchronously timed wrt piston position at
all eng speeds and loads
• Spark should be sufficiently strong to start
burning of charge (lean mixtures require
higher ign voltage but lean mixtures used
due to economy & pollution)
• Light & compact system
• Easy to maintain
• Adaptable to mass production
• Should not cause radio interference
 Certain Aspects of Ignition System
• Generally, 12V battery employed
• A voltage surge of 25,000 to 50,000V required
to generate strong spark
• Highest ign voltage required during cruising as
mixture is lean & comb pr is higher

• Voltage at which spark occurs-Break Down Voltage

• Break down voltage depends upon SP gap, polarity,
condition of insulation; pressure, temp and type of
mixture (lean/rich) in comb chamber
• Two conventional Ignition systems:
- Battery Ignition System
- Magneto Ignition System
 Battery Ignition System
Secondary Distributor
Winding 4

4 3 Spark
2 3 2 Plugs
Core
1 1

Ign SW

Primary Winding
V Condenser

Cam
HT Cables
CB Point
 Current Built Up in Primary Coil

Current

Time
 Generation of Spark
 R
V t 1 2
I(t )  (1  e L
); Ib  Ib L
R 2
Ib Ib Ib

Current

S S S
Make Break Make Break Make

Time
 HT Terminal

LT Terminal LT Terminal

Core

Primary Coil

Secondary Coil

Ignition / HT Coil
 LT Secondary Coil
HT

Core
Ballast
Resistance
Primary Coil
LT

Ignition Coil
 Spring
Lever

To CB Points
Primary
Coil
Cam

Distributor Spindle

Contact Breaker System

 Lecture No 34
Learning Objectives:
• To understand construction and working of conventional
ignition systems (Magneto System)
 Magneto Ignition System
• Magneto is a generator of electric current driven
by engine
• It produces & supplies current to primary windings
• When rotated at high speed, it produces adequately
high tension voltage to jump air gap of SP to
produce spark
• System consists of an armature made of laminated
soft iron plates wound with insulated copper wire
having permanent magnets fitted with pole shoes
• Armature carries primary and secondary windings
and rotated between magnet poles – N & S
• Other systems remain almost same as that of Bty Ign
Secondary Magneto Ignition System
Winding
Distributor
Magnet
4

4 3 Spark
2 3 2 Plugs

1 1

Core

Condenser
Primary
Winding Distributor Arm
Cam

CB Point
 Magneto Ignition System
(a) (c)
Core
2
1

N N S
S

1
2

(b) (d)

N 2 1 S N 1 2 S
 Secondary Voltage v/s Magneto Shaft Rotation

Secondary
d
Voltage/
Flux

a0 90° c 180° 270° e 360°

Magneto Shaft Rotation

Comparison of Battery & Magneto Ign Systems
1. Starting & Low Speed Operation Bty ignition gives
adequate voltage even at very low speed/starting as
it does not depend on eng speed. Ideal for starting.
However, magneto ign does not give spark at low
cranking speed

Magneto Ign System

Battery Ign System

HT Voltage

Speed
Comparison of Battery & Magneto Ign Systems
2. Strength of Spark Adequate strength in
bty ign system although curve droops with
speed. However, magneto ignition is most
powerful at higher speed

Magneto Ign System

Strength Battery Ign System

Of Spark

Speed
Comparison of Battery & Magneto Ign Systems
3. Maintenance Easier in bty ign system as items
requiring maint are more accessible

4. Circuit Wiring Magneto cct wiring is very simple.

More wiring in bty ign sys hence prone to faults/
failures. Additional charging and dynamo system
5. Reliability Run down bty results in complete failure
of ign system. Magneto is more reliable due to its
independence of bty and charging dynamo

6. Cost High cost of magneto is major disadvantage

7. General Both systems perform well; however,

where reliability is main consideration like racing
cars, aeroplanes etc, magneto system is employed
 Limitations of Conventional Systems
• CB points have to operate with heavy current, due
to which they get pitted, burnt or worn out, thus
requiring frequent service/ replacement
• Being mechanical device, CB points can not operate
precisely at higher speeds because of inertia

• At higher speeds, dwell period is not sufficient for

building up of magnetic field to its full value, due to
which spark is weakened
• Thus conventional systems can give satisfactory
performance up to a max of 400 sparks/ sec
Modern Electronic Ignition systems can provide
up to 1000 sparks/sec, which is the requirement of
sports cars (8 cyl eng running at 15000rpm)
 Lecture No 35
Learning Objectives:
• To understand electronic ignition systems
Operation of A Transistor
(An Electrical Switch & An Amplifier)
Main Current

Emitter Collector

Control / Base Current

 Electronic Ignition System
Secondary Ignition Coil Distributor
Winding 4

4 3 Spark
2 3 2 Plugs
Core
1 1
ECU
Ign SW

Primary Winding Firing Order

V 1-3-4-2
Bias Current

Timer
 Pulse Generator To ECU/Transistor
- + Base Current

S
Timer Coil

Magnetic Flux
N

Distributor Reluctor
Shaft
 Hall-Effect Switch

Magnetic Field

Current

Induced Voltage

Semi conductor
Distributorless / Waste Spark Ignition System
Hall Effect Switch

ECU
V

HT Coils

Cyl No 1 Cyl No 4 Cyl No 2 Cyl No 3

Comp. Exhaust Exhaust Compn
Stroke Stroke Stroke Stroke
 Transistor-Assisted Control (TAC/TCI) System
Secondary Distributor
Winding 4

4 3 Spark
2 3 2 Plugs
Core
1 1

Ign SW

Primary Winding Ballast Resistance HT Cables

Bty
V

CB Point

Cam
High Voltage Capacitive Discharge
Ignition System (CDI)
Distributor SPs

300/500V C 4
3

SCR
DC to DC SCR 2
Convertor Triggering cct
V
HT
Coil 1
• Capacitor is used as a
means of high energy
storage

• Capacitor is charged
to high voltage (500V)
by means of DC to DC
Transformer

• At the time of required ignition, capacitor is

discharged by Thyristor (SCR pulse) through primary
circuit, which generates a high voltage pulse in
secondary coil to generate spark at spark plug
 Lecture No 36
Learning Objectives:
• To understand engine governing system
 Engine
Governing System
 Function of Governor
• A Governor controls the fluctuation of speed of the
eng within prescribed limits with the variation of
load over a period of time
(Flywheel controls the cyclic variations of speed due
to fluctuations of energy over a period of cycle)
• When an eng runs at equilibrium speed, it develops
the power corresponding to eng load & its FP
• If load on eng decreases, its speed will increase
since power being developed remains same.
Converse shall also be true.
• To adjust to new loads, supply of fuel or A/F
mixture is required to be adjusted. This is done by
Eng Governor.
 Methods of Governing

1. Hit & Miss Governing

Fuel supply is completely cut off for few
cycles
2. Quality Governing
Air/Fuel ratio is varied by varying quantity
of fuel per cycle. Used in CI Engines

3. Quantity Governing
Quantity of charge/mixture per cycle is
varied. Used in SI engines
Hit & Miss Governing : Diesel Engine
Quality Governing
 Lecture No 37
Learning Objectives:
• To understand construction and working of engine starting
system
 Engine
Starting System
 Engine Starting System
• For engine to start, its crank shaft needs to be rotated
to achieve certain speed by overcoming static inertia
of various parts, which rotate/ reciprocate / rub
against each other when engine runs
• To do this, some device is required to crank the engine
to provide adequate torque and sufficient power
• This device should be able to draw power from some
captive equipment moving with engine

• Starting systems are, generally, following types:

- By Kick starting in small two wheelers
- By electric motor in heavy 2 wheelers and all types
of 4 wheelers using Battery
- By Air motor in Tanks using Air Compressor
Requirements of Eng Starting System
• For engine to start, cranking speed should be
adequate, around 100 RPM
• Sufficient torque is required to crank the engine,
which may be 10 to 30 Nm in case of smaller engines
and 50 to 150 Nm for heavier engines
• Cranking ratio between motor and flywheel should be
such that minimum torque is required to crank the
engine, generally 15:1. In this case, starter is
required to rotate at 1500 RPM to crank the engine
at 100 RPM
• Power source should be adequate to meet the
heavy requirement of energy
 Starting Circuit

Ign Switch
Bendix
Drive

Starter Motor Pinion

Battery

Eng Start cct Breaker

Fly Wheel Ring
 Starting Motor
• Starter Motor is driven by current drawn from battery
• It is mounted on the side of engine near flywheel
• Motor has to be powerful enough to crank the engine
• Starting Motor is similar to DC generator
• It requires to develop around 10 to 30 Nm torque
for smaller engines and 50 to 150 Nm for heavy engs
• Motor may be series wound or series-shunt wound
• Starter motor draws heavy current as high as 500 A
• As the motor draws very heavy current, battery
voltage falls very sharply
• Drive ratio of around 15:1 may be required but
largely it shall depend upon size of flywheel
• Motor Pinion should disengage, once engine starts
 Starting Drive
• For starting, engine is required to be cranked at
around 100 RPM
• If motor rotates at 1500 RPM, with a drive ratio of
15:1, engine will be cranked at 100 RPM
• But when engine starts and if starter pinion is still in
mesh with ring gear on fly wheel, the engine will
rotate armature shaft of the starter motor at very
high speed, with the result commutator segments
and starter windings will fly away due to centrifugal
force
• Therefore, it is necessary to have such a device that
once engine has started, starter pinion should
disengage from fly wheel ring gear immediately
 Bendix Drive
• Bendix drive is inertia type of drive, in which starter
pinion is made to engage or disengage with ring gear
• There is threaded sleeve on the armature shaft, which
can slide or turn freely over the shaft
• Shaft is keyed to fixed
drive head, which is
connected torsionally to
sleeve by a coil spring,
which takes up shock of
engagement
• An unbalance weight is
attached to pinion to
prevent its rotation of
on the sleeve threads
 Bendix Drive
• When the motor starts , the armature shaft rotates
and because the pinion can not rotate due to the
unbalance weight, it moves axially towards the motor
till it is engaged with flywheel
• Further movement of
pinion is prevented by
collar attached to sleeve
and because of this, the
pinion starts rotating
• Since pinion is in mesh
with the flywheel, it is
rotated and engine starts
•When eng starts, flywheel now rotates the pinion much
faster than the armature (starter switch off), with the
result that pinion is backed out of mesh with flywheel
 Lecture No 38
Learning Objectives:
• To understand engine emissions
 AIR POLLUTION
• In 1940s, air pollution was recognised as problem in
in Los Angeles of California
• Large population created large number of factories,
power plants, automobiles density
• Smoke & other pollutants created smog conditions

• In 1950s, smog problem increased due to increase in

population & automobile densities
• Automobiles recognised as major contributor to
air pollution
• By 1960s, emission standards began to be enforced
in California
 AIR POLLUTION
• During next decades, Emission Standards adopted in
whole of United States, Europe and Japan
• By making engines fuel efficient, emissions per vehicle
reduced by 95% during 1970s & 1980s and engines
consumed less than half the fuel

• However, during this time, number of automobiles

greatly increased with no overall decrease in fuel usage
SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTANTS
• Factories
• Thermo-electric power plants
• Automobiles
• Refineries
• Explosive materials
• Aircrafts, ships & train engines
• Incinerators
• Static oil, petrol and diesel engines
MAJOR POLLUTANTS & THEIR EFFECTS
1. Carbon Monoxide(CO)
• Headache, nausea & breathing problems

2. Hydrocarbon(HC)
• Causes irritation in respiratory system

3. Soot
• Solid carbon particles of few microns, get suspended
in air, breathed by humans & animals
• Mostly by diesel engines; produces lung cancer
 MAJOR POLLUTANTS & THEIR EFFECTS
4. Oxides Of Nitrogen (NOx)
• Several Oxides : NO, NO2, N2O, N2O3 etc
• Produced by combination of N2 & O2 at high temp
above 1100°C
• NO, NO2 affect health most adversely; irritate eyes,
nose, throat; cause coughing, headache; NO2 being
most poisonous with penetrating odour can destroy
lung’s tissues
5. Aldehydes
• Formed in diesel engines mostly at idle speed due to
cold flames
• Cause unpleasant smell due to pungent odour of
diesel & Causes irritation to eyes & nose
 MAJOR POLLUTANTS & THEIR EFFECTS
6. Suspended Particulate Matters (SPMs)
• Mostly produced by diesel fuel
• Contain ash, carbon particles & H2SO4 vapours
• SPM size less than 100 µm & remain suspended in air
for long time
• SPMs enter body through respiratory system
• SPMs are arrested by nasal hair, then by mucus
linings of nose; however, 1 µm size reach lungs
& cause bronchitis & cardiac diseases
7. SO2, H2S & Lead
• Toxic gas SO2 & bad smell of H2S formed on burning of
Sulphur present in petroleum oils
• Poisonous lead compounds released if TML / TEL
used as dopes in petrol
 EMISSION OF POLLUTANTS : SI ENGINES
Emissions From Exhaust
2C8H18+25O2+25x3.76N2=16CO2+18H2O+25x3.76N2+Heat
( Ideal Combustion Reaction)

CO : By incomplete comb. due to inadequacy of O2

or dissociation of CO2 at high temp
HC : By incomplete comb due to inadequacy of O2
NOx : O2 & N2 of atm air combine inside comb
chamber at temp beyond 1100°C
Evaporation of Gasoline (HC)
• Fuel Tank
• Carburator
Crankcase Blow by
EMISSION OF POLLUTANTS : CI ENGINES
CO : By incomplete comb. due to inadequacy of O2
or dissociation of CO2 at high temp but less than
2% compared to 5% in gasoline engines
HC : By incomplete comb. due to inadequacy of O2
NOx : O2 & N2 of air combine inside comb chamber
during acceleration at temp beyond 1100°C
Smoke : Carbon particles due to poor comb of fuel; Black
smoke increases with load; white smoke due to
liquid droplets of lub oil & fuel
SPMs : Heavily produced on burning of diesel fuel; ash,
solid carbon & vapours of H2SO4
Aldehydes : More pronounced in diesel engines by
burning of alcohol
SO2 & H2S : By burning of Sulphur present in diesel
 HYDROCARBONS (HC)
• Exhaust gases from SI Engines contain upto 6000ppm
HC; 1.5% of total fuel, 40% of it as UBHC, other
reacted
components; one-fifth of this in CI engines
• HC in the atmosphere act as irritants and odorants,
and some are carcinogenic

• HC reacts with atmospheric gases to form smog

 Causes of HC Emissions
• Non-stoichiometric A/F Ratio: rich mixture-less O2,
(engine start-up, acceleration), too lean mixture- poor
combustion; extreme lean mixture- extreme poor
combustion-total misfire
• Incomplete Combustion: Inhomogeneous AF
mixture,
flame quenching at cylinder walls, at the end of
expansion stroke, expansion quenching due to high
exhaust residual at low load & idle conditions,
• Crevice
also due Volumes:
to high EGR(gaps in & upto first piston ring)
mixture gets compressed into crevice volumes during
compression & power strokes due to high pressure
(about 3% of fuel in combustion chamber); due to low
pressure at the end of expansion stroke, it reverses
and most of it goes to exhaust
 HC from Engines

700 Stoichiometric
A/F Ratio
600

500

400

HC 300
(PPM)
200

100

0
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
A/F Ratio
 Causes of HC Emissions (Contd)
• Leak Past the Exhaust Valve: Due to compression
&
combustion pr, mixture forced into crevice volume
around edges of exhaust valve & between valve and
valve seat and goes to exhaust when valve opens.
• HC at peak
Valve at theBoth
Overlap: startvalves
of blow down
open
• Deposits on Combustion Chamber Walls: Fuel vapor
absorbed by deposits and released later when comb
pr reduces, higher the pressure, higher the absorption
• Oil on Comb Chamber Walls: Oil film used for lub
absorbs and desorbs fuel vapor depending upon pr.
Old engines have thicker oil film, so more absorption.
Also, worn out piston rings allow oil to burn in comb
chamber, a major source of HC emission, blowby &
crevice volume also increases
 Causes of HC Emissions
• Two Stroke Engines: Due to scavenging, HC goes to
exhaust; modern two stroke engines do not scavenge
with AF mixture but only by pure air. Once exhaust
port closes, only then fuel is injected in the cylinder
by EMS
• CI Engines: CI engines operate on overall lean mixture
(30 to 70AF ratio) hence, HC emissions one-fifth of
SI engines, about 2%; due to heterogeneous mixture,
some spots too lean, others too rich to combust
properly, over mixing may result with already burnt
gases and does not combust totally; after stop of
injection, dribbling of injectors.
CI engines also emit HC due to same reasons as SI
engines like wall deposits, oil film absorption,
crevice volume etc
 CARBON MONOXIDE (CO)
• CO - a colourless, odourless and poisonous gas

• CO produced when engines operate with rich

A/F mixture (less oxygen)

• When enough oxygen not available to convert all

carbon to CO2 , some carbon end up as CO

• CO in SI engines: 0.2% to 5%

• CO not only undesirable but represents lost chemical

energy, which would be released on conversion of
CO to CO2 being exothermic reaction
 CARBON MONOXIDE (CO)
• Max CO generation when engine uses rich mixture,
such as starting, accelerating, deceleration
• CO generation even when engine uses stoichiometric
mixture

• Poor mixing, local rich regions, incomplete combustion

generate CO

• CI engines operating in lean manner have very low

CO emission
 CO from Engines
Stoichiometric
14
A/F Ratio
12

10

CO 6
(%)
4

8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
A/F Ratio
 OXIDES OF NITROGEN (NOx)
• NOx is produced during combustion due to high
combustion temperature above 1000°C (upto 2000ppm)

• Most of NOx is NO, with small amount of NO2 with

traces of other combination of N & O
• NOx is very undesirable and regulations are making
its emission more stringent

• Released NOx reacts in atmosphere to form Ozone,

which is major cause of smog
• Higher the temp, more NOx
 OXIDES OF NITROGEN (NOx)
• NOx is produced in any of the following manners:
O  N 2  NO  N
N  O2  NO  O
N  OH  NO  O
• NO, in turn, further react to form NO2 as under:
NO  H 2O  NO2  H 2
NO  O2  NO2  O
• Although max flame temp occurs at stoichiometric AF,
max NOx is formed at slightly leaner mixture as at this
condition, excess oxygen is available
 NOx from Engines
Stoichiometric
3000 A/F Ratio

2500

2000

NOx
(PPM) 1500

1000

500

0
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
A/F Ratio
 OXIDES OF NITROGEN (NOx)
• In addition to its dependence on temp, formation of
NOx also depends on pressure, AF ratio, and
combustion time within cylinder
• NOx has been reduced in modern fast burn combustion
chamber
• NOx also depends on location within comb chamber.
Highest NOx concentration near spark plug, where
highest temp occurs
• CI engines with divided comb chamber (IDI) tends
to generate higher NOx due to high CR, temperature
& pressure
• With advanced ignition timing, cylinder temp is
increased & more NOx is created
 OXIDES OF NITROGEN (NOx)
• Smog: NOx is primary cause of smog

• NO2 decomposes as:

NO2 + Energy from sunlight = NO + O + Smog

• Monatomic oxygen is highly reactive and forms ozone

• Ground level ozone is very harmful to lungs and other

biological tissues, crops and trees
• Ozone also damages rubber, plastic and other materials
 CO, HC & NOx from Engines
14 700 Stoichiometric
A/F Ratio 3000

12 600
2500
10 500
2000
8 400

CO 6 HC 300 1500 NOx

(PPM) (PPM)
(%)
4 200 1000

2 100 500
0 0
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
A/F Ratio
 PARTICULATES
• CI engine exhaust contains solid soot particles,
generated in fuel-rich zones in the cylinder
• Noticed as exhaust smoke, max soot occurs under
load/ vehicle climbing up with full accelerator
• Soot particles are cluster of solid carbon spheres of
10 to 80nm; mostly in the range of 15 to 30nm
• A single soot particle may contain up to 4000 carbon
spheres
• Carbon spheres are generated in fuel-rich zones, where
enough oxygen not available to convert all carbon to CO
• Up to 25% of carbon in soot comes from lubricating oil,
rest from fuel
 PARTICULATES
• Particulates can be reduced by extending combustion
time, but this increases combustion temp and hence
NOx production

• Dilution by EGR can control NOx but reduces power

and increase particulate and HC

• Engine Management System (EMS) are programmed to

minimize NOx, HC, CO and particulate by controlling
ignition timing, injection pressure, injection timing,
valve timing etc
 OTHER EMISSIONS
• CO2 - green house gas

• Aldehydes: generated when alcohol used as fuel

mostly in CI engines, due to incomplete combustion.
Eye & respiratory irritant

• Sulphur: Little amount in fuel; produces H2S, SO2,

SO3, and ultimately H2SO4 after combining with water
and contribute to acid rains. However, fuel with low
sulphur looses lub properties resulting in chocking of
fuel pumps and injectors in CI engines, which depend
on fuel for lubrication
 Lecture No 39
Learning Objectives:
• To learn about engine pollution control
 POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEMS
IN AUTOMOBILES

Two Approaches

1. Change/ Modifications In Engine Design

Compression Ratio, Comb Chamber
Design, Valve Timings, Spray Nozzles etc

2. Treatment of Exhaust Gases

Conversion of pollutants to unharmful
substances by fitting special devices to
engines
 SOME POLLUTION CONTROL DEVICES

1. Catalytic Converter

2. Exhaust Gases Recirculation (EGR) System

3. Positive Crankcase Ventilation (PCV) System

4. Fuel Evaporative Control (EVAP) System

 AFTER TREATMENT
CATALYTIC CONVERTERS:
• HC and CO can be oxidised to H2O and CO2 in thermal
converter placed in exhaust system if temp held at
600°C-700°C
• If catalysts are used, then oxidation processes can
take place at reduced temp of 250°C-300°C
Two-way and Three-way Catalytic Converters:
• Generally, stainless steel container mounted in exhaust
system/pipe
• Container has ceramic honeycomb structure with
many flow passages
 Catalytic Converter
Catalyst
Seals
(Palladium) Harmless
Exhaust
Gases
Pollutants
CO2
CO
HC H2O
NOx & Harmful
NOx
Two-Way Catalytic Converter

Seals

Exhaust Harmless
Pollutants Gases
CO CO2
HC H2O
NOx N2
Rhodium Platinum O2
(NOx Element) (HC & CO Elements)

Three-Way Catalytic Converter

 CATALYTIC CONVERTERS:
• Volume of ceramic structure is generally about half
of engine displacement volume
• For CI engine, converters need larger flow passages due
to solid soot in the exhaust gases
• Surface of ceramic passages contain small embedded
particles of catalytic material that promote oxidation
reactions in the exhaust
• Base ceramic material -Aluminium oxide, which can
withstand high temp (does not thermally degrade
with age)
• Catalysts, Palladium and Platinum, promote oxidation
of CO and HC
 CATALYTIC CONVERTERS:
• Catalyst, Rhodium, promote the reactions of NOx in
one or more of the following ways:
2 NO  2CO  N 2  2CO2
2 NO  5CO  3H 2O  2 NH 3  5CO2
2 NO  2 H 2  N 2  2 H 2O
2 NO  5 H 2  2 NH 3  2 H 2O
• Instead of ceramics, some converters are filled with
very thin corrugated metal foil wrapped in a monolith
structure. Exhaust gases pass between the rolls of foil,
the surface of which embedded with catalytic material
• Active surface area of such a converter can be as large
as 70,000m2
 CATALYTIC CONVERTERS:

• Efficiency of a converter is highly dependent on

temperature

• A good working condition converter operating at a fully

warmed temp of 400°C and above, converts 98-99% of
CO, 95% of NOx and more than 95% of HC of exhaust
emissions. Refer plot
 CONVERTER EFFICIENCY
100

NOx
80
Converter Efficiency

60
HC
CO

40
%

20

100 200 300 400

Temp °C
 AFstoi 1
CATALYTIC CONVERTERS:  ;
AFact 
• Effective control of HC and CO occurs with
stoichiometric or lean mixture, while control
of NOx requires near-stoichiometric conditions
100

HC
Converter Efficiency

80

60
NOx CO
40

Lean Rich
20
%

0.96 0.97 .98 0.99 1.0 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04

Equivalence Ratio, φ
 CATALYTIC CONVERTERS:

• Converter should have effective lifetime equal to that

of automobile or atleast 2,00,000kms
• Converters loose their efficiency with age due to
thermal degradation and poisoning of the active
catalyst material
• Thermal degradation occurs in the temp range of
500°C-900°C
• Impurities in fuel, lub oil and air such as lead, sulphur
from fuel, zinc, phosphorus, antimony, calcium and
magnesium from oil additives, poison the catalyst
material
• Converter efficiency remains low during engine start up
as it does not achieve required temp
 EXHAUST GAS RECYCLE (EGR)
• Most effective method to reduce NOx is to hold comb
temp down, though it reduces thermal efficiency of the
engine

• EGR is done by ducting some of the exhaust gases,

back in the intake system immediately after throttle

• EGR can be as high as 30% of total intake. EGR gas

combines with exhaust residual left in the cylinder
from previous cycle to effectively reduce the maximum
comb temp

• Flow rate of EGR is controlled by EMS depending upon

engine operating conditions
 Exhaust
Exhaust Gases to
Gases Atm
From eng
Part of
Exhaust

Engine EGR
Engine Intake Vacuum
Cylinders Manifold Regulator

Exhaust Gases Recirculation (EGR)

EXHAUST GAS RECYCLE (EGR):
• By sensing inlet and exhaust conditions, EGR flow is
controlled ranging from zero to 15-30%. Engines with
fast-burn comb chamber use greater EGR
• Good control of NOx can occur with high EGR at
stoichiometric comb without adverse effect

• No EGR used during full engine load as max power

desired, no EGR at idle and very little at low speeds
• Unique problem in CI engines while using EGR that
exhaust contain solid carbon soot which act as
abrasive and breaks down lubricants resulting in
greater wear on piston rings and valves
 PARTICULATE TRAPS
• CI engines use Traps to reduce release of particulates
to atmosphere
• Traps are filter-like systems made of ceramics in the
form of monolith or mat or sometimes metal wire mesh
• Traps typically remove 60-90% of particulates in the
exhaust flow
• As traps catch the soot, they slowly fill up restricting
exhaust flow raising back pressure of the engine
• High back pressure causes engine run hotter resulting
in high fuel consumption

• Therefore, traps are required to be regenerated by

combusting soot in excess O2 during lean operation
 PARTICULATE TRAPS
• Carbon soot ignites at about 550°C-650°C, while CI
engine exhaust temp is 150°C-350°C at normal
operating conditions
• As traps fill up with soot, exhaust temp rises but even
this is not high enough to burn the soot and regenerate
the trap
• If catalyst material is installed in the trap, temp
required to ignite the soot is reduced to 350°C-450°C
• These traps automatically regenerate by self-igniting
• Some traps use electric heaters or flame nozzles for
regeneration when predetermined back pressure rises
• Some traps use catalyst additives in diesel fuel to lower
ignition temp of the soot for regeneration
Positive Crankcase Ventilation (PCV)

PURPOSE ?

Engine Engine
Crank Engine
Breather Intake
Case Cylinders
Manifold

Blowby Gases
Fuel Evaporative Emission Control (EVAP)
Air from Air Cleaner

Fuel Collected Fuel being Sucked

Filling
Opening Carburetor

Fuel Charcoal
Tank Chamber Float
Chamber

Air
Air Venting/ Evaporating Petrol Venting
Petrol Tubing

PURPOSE ?
 Emission Norms
• Emission Norms are the maximum permissible limits
of pollutants which are allowed to be exhausted by
engines. These limits are laid down by Govt of a
Country and implemented through legislation
• In European Countries, these norms are called
EURO NORMS
• In India, such norms are called BHARAT STAGE
NORMS. Currently, BHARAT STAGE IV NORMS are
in force in NCR & 10 Cities wef 01 Apr 2010.
In other cities/towns BHARAT STAGE III Norms are
in force
• Pollutants contribute to global warming, acid rains,
smog, odors, and respiratory and other health
problems
 Implementation of Emission Norms in India
Standards Reference Date Regions
India 2000 Euro-I 2000 Nationwide
Bharat Stage-II Euro-II 2001 NCR, Mumbai,
Kolkata, Chennai
1.4.0 NCR, 10 Cities*
3
1.4.0 Nationwide
5
Bharat Stage-III Euro-III 1.4.0 NCR, 10 Cities*
5
1.4.1 Nationwide
0
Bharat Stage- Euro-IV 1.4.1 NCR, 10 Cities*
IV Euro-III 0 Nationwide