Digital Electronics and

Microprocessor
Fundamentals

Chapter 02 : Boolean Algebra &

Logic Simplification

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.1

Logic Operations
 Symbol
 Active-high

 Active-low

 Bubble – a small circle indicating logic inversion on a

circuit symbol
 Boolean Algebra
 Logic Equations
 Truth Table
 Timing Diagram

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.2

Boolean Algebra
 Boolean Variables (or Logic Variables)
 value can be 0 or 1 (True or False)

 In digital systems, logic-0 and logic-1 are

represented as a voltage (or voltage range)

 Each variable is assigned a name beginning with a

letter in most examples

 E.g. P, ALARM, O1,O2, X3O, …

 Boolean Algebra
 a mathematical process for analyzing and simplifying

Boolean expressions to help analyze a logic circuit

and express its operation mathematically
 deals with Boolean variables only

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.3

Boolean Algebra
 Basic Boolean Operations (or Logic Operations)
 AND

 OR

 NOT (or Logic Complement, Inversion)

 Other Boolean operations

 NAND

 NOR

 Exclusive-OR

 Exclusive-NOR

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.4

Boolean Algebra
 Boolean Function
 Boolean Operations

 Boolean Variables

 Logic Gate
 an electrical circuit that performs a Boolean algebraic

function

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.5

Logic Functions
NOT AND OR

F=A F=AB F=A+B

A A
A F C C
B B

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.6

Logic Functions
NAND NOR Exclusive-OR Exclusive-NOR

F=AB F=A+B F=AÅ B F=AÅ B

A A A A
F F F F
B B B B

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.7

Logic Functions
 Exclusive-OR

F A  B AB  A B
 Exclusive-NOR

F A  B AB  A B

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.8

Theorems of Boolean Algebra
 Boolean Theorems
 to simplify logic expressions and logic circuits

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.9

Theorems of Boolean Algebra
 De Morgan’s Theorems
XY X  Y

 May involve more than 2 or more variables, so generally

ABCD...N A  B  C  D  ...  N

A  B  C  ...  N A.B.C...N

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.10

Theorems of Boolean Algebra - Example
 Simplify X + X’Y
From Law #12,
X + X’Y = (X + X’)(X + Y) = (1)(X + Y) = X + Y

 Simplify (A’ + B + C + D)’ + AB’C’D

(A’ + B + C + D)’ + AB’C’D

= A’’ B’ C’ D’ + AB’C’D
= AB’C’D’ + AB’C’D
= AB’C’ (D’ + D)
= AB’C’

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.11

Theorems of Boolean Algebra - Example
 Simplify F = A’BC + AB’C + ABC + BC’
F = A’BC + AB’C + ABC + BC’
= A’BC + ABC + AB’C + BC’
= (A’ + A) BC + AB’C + BC’
= BC + BC’ + AB’C
= B + B’AC
= B + AC
 Simplify W = Y’(X + Z) + Z(X’ + Y) + XZ
W = Y’(X + Z) + Z(X’ + Y) + XZ
= Y’X + Y’Z + ZX’ + ZY + XZ
= Y’X + Z(Y’ + X’ + Y + X)
= Y’X + Z
02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.12
Theorems of Boolean Algebra - Example
 Classwork Exercise:

Simplify F = A’C + A’B + AB’C + BC

F = A’C + A’B + AB’C + BC

= A’B + (A’C + AB’C + BC)
= A’B + C(A’ + AB’ + B)
= A’B + C[A’ + (AB’ + B)]
= A’B + C[A’ + (A + B)]
= A’B + C[(A’ + A) + B]
= A’B + C(1 + B)
= A’B + C

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.13

Truth Table
 A tabular form to describe how the output of a logic
circuit depends on the logic levels present at the circuit’s
input
 2n rows for a n-input logic function

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.14

Truth Table
 Draw a truth table to prove X  XY X  Y

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.15

Truth Table
 Draw a truth table for the logic function 
F AB BC  A 

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.16

Truth Table
 Classwork Exercise:

Draw a truth table to prove

A + (B C) = (A + B)(A + C)

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.17

Universal Gates
 Determine the output F for each case. Comment on the
results obtained.
A
F
B
A
F
F= B

F=
A F

A
F=
F

F=
02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.18
Universal Gates
 NOR gates can also be used to implement NOT, AND
and OR gates

 Classwork Exercise:

Draw logic diagrams and write Boolean equations to

show the implementation of NOT, AND and OR gates
using only NOR gates.

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.19

Universal Gates
 Any of the Boolean operations can be implemented
using only NAND / NOR gates

 Any logic circuit can be implemented using only NAND /

NOR gates

 Useful in logic circuit design to keep using a single type

of fixed-function IC

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.20

Universal Gates – Examples
 Example:

Use 2-input NAND gates to implement the following logic

function:

F = A(B + C)

Draw a logic diagram to illustrate your answer.

Repeat the same example but using 2-input NOR gates.

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.21

Timing Diagrams
 A graphical view showing the signal values over time
 A graph of voltage vs time

 Useful to show
 how digital signals change with time

 the timing relationship between 2 or more logic signals

in the same circuit or system

 Practical measurement will display one or more signals

on an Oscilloscope or Logic Analyzer for comparison

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.22

Timing Diagrams
 Example:

The timing diagram in Fig 1 shows the input and output

waveforms of a logic gate. Identify the logic gate.

1
A
0
1
B
0
1
F
0
time / t
Fig 1
02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.23
Examples
 Example:

Simplify the logic circuit in Fig 1.

A
A A  BC

B BC
C A
F
B
Fig 1

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.24

Examples
 Example:

Using 2-input NAND gates only, implement the following

Boolean functions:

Y = AB + CD

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.25

Truth Table & Boolean Function
 Consider the truth table for an AND gate, we can see
that F = AB
 The truth table tells us that F = 1 only when input A

AND B are both equal

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.26

Truth Table & Boolean Function
 For OR gate, the truth table tells us that when
 A = 0, B = 1 (i.e. A’B) then F = 1, or
 A = 1, B = 0 (i.e. AB’) then F = 1, or
 A = 1, B = 1 (i.e. AB) then F = 1
 So, in the form of Boolean expression
 F = A’B + AB’ + AB

= A’B + A(B’ + B)
= A’B + A
=A+B

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.27

Truth Table & Boolean Function
 Determine a Boolean function from a truth table
 first, draw a truth table for the various input

combinations and the corresponding output

 pick up these input combinations which produces

logic-1 output to form a Boolean equation

 then, simplify the Boolean function using the various

‘Laws’ of Boolean Algebra

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.28

Truth Table & Boolean Function
 Example:

Find the Boolean function for each of the following truth

tables:

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.29

Truth Table & Boolean Function

 Example:

Determine the Boolean function F.

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.30

SOP : Minterms
The following shows all minterms in a 3-input truth table

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.31

SOP : Minterms
 Sum-of-Product (SOP) form
 PRODUCT term; e.g. A’B’C’, A’B’C, …, ABC’, ABC

 pick up all the input combinations which produces

logic-1 output
 Each PRODUCT term in a SOP form is called a

‘minterm’

 Example: Refer the example in p. 31

F = A’BC + AB’C’ + AB’C + ABC’ + ABC  SOP Form

= (m3, m4, m5, m6, m7)
= m(3, 4, 5, 6, 7) <- Canonical
Form
02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.32
Logic Simplification
 Hardware implications
 Reduce circuit size (e.g. area of a silicon chip, no. of

components)
 reduce power consumption
 reduce fabrication costs
 reduce PCB size
 shorten propagation delay => increase in speed
 improve circuit testability & reliability

 Drawback of Simplification
 Timing problems

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.33

 Digital Electronics and
Microcomputer Fundamentals

Chapter 02 K-Map

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.34

K-Map & Boolean Function
 K-Map (or Karnaugh Map)
 A map which shows the relation between the input and

output of a logic expression

 Similar to a truth table

 Consists of one square (called a ‘cell’) for each

possible minterm in a logic function

 2 variables => 4 cells

 3 variables => 8 cells

 4 variables => 16 cells

 K-Map up to 4 variables will be tested in ENG3105

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.35

 K-Map & Boolean Function

a cell
LSB LSB
BC minterm
BC
MSB BC BC BC BC MSB BC BC BC BC
A 00 01 11 10
A 00 01 11 10
minterm no.
A 0 m0 m1 m3 m2 A 0 A’B’C’ A’B’C A’BC A’BC’
0 1 3 2 0 1 3 2

A 1 m4 m5 m7 m6 A 1 A’BC AB’C ABC ABC’

4 5 7 6 4 5 7 6

3-variable K-Map 3-variable K-Map

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.36

K-Map & Boolean Function

a cell
LSB LSB
CD minterm
CD
MSB CD CD CD CD MSB CD CD CD CD
AB 00 01 11 10
AB 00 01 11 10
minterm no.
A B 00 m0 m1 m3 m2 A B 00 A’B’C’D’ A’B’C’D A’B’CD A’B’CD’
0 1 3 2 0 1 3 2

A B 01 m4 m5 m7 m6 A B 01 A’BC’D’ A’BC’D A’BCD A’BCD’

4 5 7 6 4 5 7 6

A B 11 m12 m13 m15 m14 A B 11 ABC’D’ ABC’D ABCD ABCD’

12 13 15 14 12 13 15 14

A B 10 m8 m9 m11 m10 A B 10 AB’C’D’ AB’C’D AB’CD AB’CD’

8 9 11 10 8 9 11 10

4-variable K-Map 4-variable K-Map

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.37

K-Map & Boolean Function
 Notice that the minterm nos. are not in sequential order
 The key ideas is to make the minterms in adjacent

cells different by one variable changing

 Grouping of cells for simplification

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.38

K-Map & Boolean Function
 To plot a logic function into a K-Map
 put a ‘1’ in each cell corresponding to a minterm that is

included in the logic function

 put a ‘0’ in those cells not included in the logic function

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.39

K-Map - Example
 Draw the K-map for the following Boolean function:

F = A’B’C’D’ + AB’C’D’ + A’B’C’D + A’BC’D + AB’C’D +

A’B’CD + A’BCD + ABCD + AB’CD + A’B’CD’ +
A’BCD’ + AB’CD’

Solution:

F = Sm(0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 15)

= PM(4,12,13,14)

Note: F’ = Sm(4, 12, 13, 14)

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.40

K-Map - Example
LSB
CD
MSB CD CD CD CD
AB 00 01 11 10

A B 00 1 1 1 1
0 1 3 2

A B 01 0 1 1 1
4 5 7 6

A B 11 0 0 1 0
12 13 15 14

A B 10 1 1 1 1
8 9 11 10

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.41

K-Map - Example
LSB
CD
MSB CD CD CD CD
AB 00 01 11 10

A B 00 1 1 1 1
0 1 3 2

A B 01 0 1 1 1
4 5 7 6

A B 11 0 0 1 0
12 13 15 14

A B 10 1 1 1 1
8 9 11 10

F = m(0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 15)

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.42
K-Map & Simplification
 By grouping adjacent cells of same logic state together
can simplify the logic expression
 Rules of Grouping:
 Always use a group size of 2, 4, 8 or 2n adjacent cells

 All 1’s should be picked up, don’t leave any ‘1’

unattended
 Each group – as large as possible

 As smaller number of group as possible

 Groups can overlap

 Don’t create sub-group: a small group within a larger

group

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.43

K-Map & Simplification – Some grouping examples
 Find out all possible groupings and derive the simplified
logic function.
LSB
CD
MSB CD CD CD CD
AB 00 01 11 10

A B 00 1 1 1 1
0 1 3 2

A B 01 0 1 1 1
4 5 7 6

A B 11 0 0 1 0
12 13 15 14

A B 10 1 1 1 1
8 9 11 10

F = m(0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 15)

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.44
K-Map & Simplification – Some grouping examples
 Example: Find out all possible groupings and derive the
equivalent logic function.

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.45

K-Map & Simplification – Some grouping examples
 Example: Find out all possible groupings and derive the
equivalent logic function.

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.46

K-Map & Simplification – Some grouping examples
 Example: Find out all possible groupings and derive the
equivalent logic function.

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.47

K-Map & Simplification - Example
 The K-map of a logic function G is given as follows:
LSB
CD
MSB CD CD CD CD
AB 00 01 11 10

A B 00 1 1 0 1
0 1 3 2

A B 01 0 1 0 0
4 5 7 6

A B 11 0 0 0 0
12 13 15 14

A B 10 1 1 0 1
8 9 11 10

Find the simplified SOP form of G.

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.48

Don’t Care Term
 In some practical situations, certain combinations of
inputs will not occur and so the corresponding outputs
are not important
 Hence, we don’t care the output to be marked ‘0’ or ‘1’

in a truth table
=> we mark it ‘X’ or ‘d’

 A don’t care term ‘X’ may be treated as ‘1’ or ‘0’; thus the
logic function and the actual circuit can be further
simplified

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.49

K-Map & Simplification – Some grouping examples
 Example: Find out all possible groupings and derive the
equivalent logic function.
LSB
BC
MSB BC BC BC BC
A 00 01 11 10

A 0 0 0 X 0
0 1 3 2

A 1 0 1 X 1
4 5 7 6

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.50

Don’t Care Term - Example
 The truth table of a logic function F is given in Fig 9.

Find the simplified SOP form of F by picking up only ‘1s’

in the K-Map.

Find the simplified SOP form of F by considering also the

don’t care terms in the K-Map

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.51

 Fig 9
02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.52
 1 1 1 1

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

1 1 1 1

Fig 10 K-Map for the Truth Table in Fig 9

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.53

Don’t Care Term - Example
 Draw the truth table to illustrate the behaviour of a 8421
BCD-to-Excess-3 Code Converter

MSB D8 E3 MSB

D4 8421 BCD-to- E2
Excess-3
D2 Code Comverter E1

LSB D1 E0 LSB

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.54

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.55
Don’t Care Term - Example
 How can you
 write the logic equation of each output with ‘don’t care’

terms, and
 simplify the logic equations ?

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.56

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.57
 Q&A

End-of-Chapter 02

02/04/2025 (C) VTC 2012 p.58