Explicit and Implicit Memory

The Implicit–Explicit
Memory Distinction
• Humans possess two distinct memory systems that
evolved separately to perform different functions:
1. Explicit memory: conscious, controlled by the
hippocampus and neocortex
2. Implicit memory: unconscious, linked to older parts of the
brain
 The Implicit–Explicit
Memory Distinction, cont’d
• Implicit memory is triggered by specific stimuli
– While efficient and simple when possible relevant stimuli
are few, this approach can become confusing in more
complex worlds with multiple stimuli
– A parallel system, where a single internal representation of
the outside world is available
– This is called consciousness
• Implicit and explicit memory systems coexist in
humans and other mammals
 The Implicit–Explicit
Memory Distinction, cont’d
• The pursuit-rotor task
– All subjects perform
better with practice
– Amnesic subjects
improve at same rate
but are not aware of
their progress
 The Processing Account
of Implicit and Explicit Memory
• The processing account suggests that dissociations in
performance across explicit and implicit tasks result
from a mismatch between the type of processing of
target stimuli and the type of stimuli that produce
optimal performance on a given task
– On tasks based on perceptual information (e.g. word-
fragment completion), targets processed at a perceptual
level will produce the best performance
– On tasks based on conceptual information (e.g. general
knowledge) targets processed at a conceptual level will
give the best performance
 The Neuroscience
of Explicit Memory
• Mishkin’s neural circuit for explicit memory (1982)
– When any of these areas is damaged, explicit memory
disturbances can occur
– An interactive flow of information throughout the brain
– Active role in formation of memories, many cues are
formed and used later for recall
 The Neuroscience
of Explicit Memory, cont’d
 The Neuroscience
of Implicit Memory
• Mishkin’s neural circuit for implicit memory (1982)
– The basal ganglia in the midbrain are central to implicit
memory
– Because neocortex does not receive input from basal
ganglia, implicit memories do not enter consciousness
 The Neuroscience
of Implicit Memory, cont’d
 The Neuroscience
of Implicit Memory, cont’d
• Mishkin’s neural circuit for implicit memory (1982)
– Supported by observations of people with Parkinson’s
disease, which impairs functioning in the basal ganglia
• Parkinson’s shows implicit but not explicit memory deficits
• In subjects with amnesia and early Alzheimer’s, the opposite
deficit is observed
– Implicit information is encoded in the same way it is
perceived: information enters the system at the sensory
receptors and makes its ways to cortical regions
• This type of process is referred to as “bottom up”
– For a memory to be recalled, a probe must match an item
stored in memory
 Studying Implicit Memory
• Researchers have devised many paradigms to study
implicit memory:
– The rotor-pursuit task
– Artificial grammars
– Pattern learning
– Stem-completion tasks
• Researchers also study implicit memory by studying:
– Language use
– Classical conditioning
– Procedural memory
 Artificial Grammars
• A set of rules
governing how a string
of letters can be
combined
• Complex information
from patterns without
conscious effort,
patterns learned
remain outside of an
individual’s awareness
 Pattern-Learning Paradigms
• They are closely related to artificial grammars
• The results from studies using artificial grammars and
pattern-learning paradigms have demonstrated that
complex pattern learning is achieved using implicit
memory
• Children acquire language without explicit instruction,
and people who have acquired a language are able to
detect grammatical errors without having explicit
knowledge of the rule being violated
 Classical Conditioning
• Occurs when a conditioned stimulus (CS) is paired
repeatedly with an unconditioned stimulus (US) that
elicits an unconditioned response (UR); over time,
this creates a conditioned response (CR)
– Conditioned responses are not under conscious control;
the response is automatic and involuntary
• Classical conditioning is typically preserved in
patients with severe problems with explicit memory
– Help an organism identify patterns in their environment
 Classical Conditioning, cont’d
• The process of forgetting conditioned responses is
referred to as extinction
– Phenomena such as spontaneous recovery and saving
indicate that in extinction forgetting is not complete
• The mere exposure effect occurs when a neutral
stimulus is paired with pleasant emotions over and
over again
– This explains a wide variety of preference patterns, e.g.,
mere exposure helps maintain artistic canons
 Repetition Priming
• Occurs when previous exposure to a stimulus bias
during later exposures the response to stimuli
somehow related to the original stimulus
• Observed across a wide variety of paradigms
involving unintentional learning and indirect testing
• Studied with various paradigms:
– Word stem completion (WSC)
– Word fragment completion (WFC)
– Non-verbal recognition, with figures
•
 Word-Stem Completion
(WSC) Paradigms
• WSC paradigms show that repetition priming is
modality specific
– Neural circuit involved in implicit memory is perceptually
driven
– Only cues that match the perceptual features of the
original stimulus will trigger implicit memory recall
• Repetition priming results from implicit memory
 Word-Fragment Completion
(WFC) Paradigms
• Repetition priming is also observed in the WFC
• Unlike WSC effects, which last about two hours, WFC
effects can last for more than a week
 The Implicit-Association Test (IAT)
• Individuals tend to choose responses that are socially
acceptable
• Tapping implicit memory instead of explicit memory
circumvents this bias, because implicit memory is
unconscious and automatic
• The IAT is a computerized test in which participants
categorize a word as quickly and accurately as
possible by pressing one of two keys on a keyboard
– Differences in response times across conditions reveals
hidden biases
 Negative-Priming Paradigm
• Negative priming occurs when response times are
slowed for stimuli that have been ignored on
previous trials
• Demonstrate that implicit memories for shapes are
formed even when an individual is not attending to
the stimulus
• Negative-priming effects have been demonstrated for
delays of up to one month, suggesting that these
implicit memories are long-lasting
 The Illusory-Truth Effect
• People are more likely to rate a repeated statement
as true than a new statement
• Implicit memory processes are effective, even when
participants have explicit knowledge
• Confirmed when participants were distracted during
the learning to disrupt explicit memory processes
 The False-Fame Effect
• Implicit memory can produce an influential sense of
familiarity that exerts its effect outside of conscious
awareness
• People are more likely to indicate that a nonfamous
name was famous if they had seen it before, and this
effect occurred even when participants didn’t
recognize the name
 Implicit Memory and Anaesthesia
• Isolated forearm technique (IFT)
– Patients can use their hand to respond to questions during
surgery if they are conscious
– Patients who are conscious have no explicit memory of the
procedure due to the amnestic effects of the drugs, but
may form implicit memories
– These include emotional memories, such as context-driven
anxiety states
 Procedural Memory
• Procedural memories are fundamentally implicit;
they are formed outside of awareness
• The only way to access this type of implicit memory
is to actually perform the action
• Formed through extensive practice
• Explicit knowledge can harm task performance
• Stress can lead people to refer to explicitly known
aspects of task performance which can decrease
their ability to perform the task as practised