UNIT 6

Underground Cables And Fault

Analysis
 CONTENTS
1. Underground cables
 Types of cables
 Capacitance of single-core and three-core cables
 Insulation resistance of a cable
 Power factor and heating of cables

2. Fault analysis
 Symmetrical 3-phase faults
 Symmetrical components
 Unsymmetrical faults.
 .
• Electric power can be transmitted or
distributed either by overhead system or
by underground cables.
• The underground cables have several
advantages such as
 less liable to damage through storms or
lightning,
 low maintenance cost,
 less chances of faults,
 smaller voltage drop and
 better general appearance.
 .
• However, their major drawback is that
 they have greater installation cost and
 introduce insulation problems at high voltages
compared with the equivalent overhead system.
• For this reason, underground cables are employed
where it is impracticable to use overhead lines.
• Such locations may be
 thickly populated areas where municipal
authorities prohibit overhead lines for reasons of
safety,
 or around plants and substations or where
maintenance conditions do not permit the use of
overhead construction.
• underground cables used for transmission of
electric power for short or moderate distances.
 Underground
.
Cables
An underground cable essentially consists of one or more
conductors covered with suitable insulation and surrounded
by a protecting cover.
• Although several types of cables are available, the type of
cable to be used will depend upon the working voltage
and service requirements.
• In general, a cable must fulfil the following necessary
requirements :
(i) The conductor used in cables should be tinned stranded
copper or aluminium of high conductivity.
 Stranding is done so that conductor may become flexible
and carry more current.

(ii) The conductor size should be such that the cable carries
the desired load current without overheating and causes
voltage drop within permissible limits.
(iii) The cable must have . proper thickness of
insulation in order to give high degree of safety and
reliability at the voltage for which it is designed.

(iv) The cable must be provided with suitable

mechanical protection so that it may withstand the
rough use in laying it.

(v) The materials used in the manufacture of cables

should be such that there is complete chemical and
physical stability throughout
 .

In general, the insulating materials used in cables

should have the following properties :
(i) High insulation resistance to avoid leakage
current.
(ii) High dielectric strength to avoid electrical
breakdown of the cable.
(iii) High mechanical strength to withstand the
mechanical handling of cables.
(iv) Non-hygroscopic i.e., it should not absorb
moisture from air or soil.
• The moisture tends to decrease the insulation
resistance and hastens the breakdown of the
cable.
• In case the insulating material is hygroscopic, it
must be enclosed in a waterproof covering like
lead sheath.
(v) Non-inflammable.
 Classification of Cables
• Cables for underground service may be classified in
two ways according to
(i) the type of insulating material used in their
manufacture
(ii) the voltage for which they are manufactured.

 However, the latter method of classification is

generally preferred, according to which cables can
be divided into the following groups :

(i) Low-tension (L.T.) cables — upto 1000 V

(ii) High-tension (H.T.) cables — upto 11,000 V
(iii) Super-tension (S.T.) cables — from 22 kV to
33 kV
(iv) Extra high-tension (E.H.T.) cables — from 33
kV to 66 kV
(v) Extra super voltage cables — beyond 132 kV
• A cable may have one or more than one
core depending upon the type of service
for which it is intended. It may be
(i) single-core
(ii) two-core
(iii) three-core
(iv) four-core etc.
• For a 3-phase service, either 3-single-core
cables or three-core cable can be used
depending upon the operating voltage and
load demand.
 Cables for 3-Phase Service
• In practice, underground cables are generally
required to deliver 3-phase power.
• For the purpose, either three-core cable or *three
single core cables may be used.
• For voltages up to 66 kV, 3-core cable (i.e., multi-
core construction) is preferred due to economic
reasons.
• However, for voltages beyond 66 kV, 3-core-
cables become too large and unwieldy and,
therefore, single-core cables are used.
• The following types of cables are generally used
for 3-phase service :
1. Belted cables — upto 11 kV
2. Screened cables — from 22 kV to 66 kV
3. Pressure cables — beyond 66 kV.
Electrical Characteristics of Cables
Electric Stress in Single-Core Cables
D= q/(2πx)
E = D/ε = q/(2πεx)
q: Charge on conductor surface (C/m)
D: Electric flux density at a radius x
(C/m2)
E: Electric field (potential gradient), or
electric stress, or dielectric stress.
ε: Permittivity (ε= ε0. εr)
εr: relative permittivity or dielectric
constant.
 R
q R
V E.dx  ln
r
2 r
q V
E 
2 .x R
x. ln
r
r: conductor radius.
R: Outside radius of insulation or inside
radius of sheath.
V: potential difference between conductor
and sheath (Operating voltage of cable).
Dielectric Strength: Maximum voltage that
dielectric can withstand before it
breakdown.
Average Stress: Is the amount of voltage
across the insulation material divided by
the thickness of the insulator.
Emax = E at x = r
= V/(r.lnR/r)
Emin = E at x = R
= V/(R.lnR/r)
For a given V and R, there is a conductor
radius that gives the minimum stress at
the conductor surface. In order to get the
smallest value of Emax:
dEmax/dr =0.0
ln(R/r)=1 R/r=e=2.718
Insulation thickness is:
R-r = 1.718 r

Emax = V/r (as: ln(R/r)=1)

Where r is the optimum conductor radius

that satisfies (R/r=2.718)
Example
A single- core conductor cable of 5 km
long has a conductor diameter of 2cm and
an inside diameter of sheath 5 cm. The
cable is used at 24.9 kV and 50 Hz.
Calculate the following:
a- Maximum and minimum values of
electric stress.
b- Optimum value of conductor radius that
results in smallest value of maximum
stress.
a- Emax = V/(r.lnR/r) = 27.17 kV/cm
Emin = V/(R.lnR/r) = 10.87 kV/cm

b- Optimum conductor radius r is:

R/r = 2.718
r= R/2.718= 0.92 cm
The minimum value of Emax:
= V/r = 24.9/0.92=27.07 kV/cm
Grading of Cables
Grading of cables means the distribution
of dielectric stress such that the
difference between the maximum and
minimum electric stress is reduced.
Therefore, the cable of the same size
could be operated at higher voltages or
for the same operating voltage,
a cable of relatively small size could be
1. Capacitance Grading
This method involves the use of two or
more layers of dielectrics having
different permittivities, those with higher
permittivity being near the conductor.
Ex =q/(2 πεo.εr .x)
The permittivity can be varied with
radius x such that (ideal case):
εr = k/x
Then Ex =q/(2 πεo. k)
Ex is constant throughout the thickness
of insulation.
 r < r 1 < r2
ε 1 > ε2 > ε 3

r1
r2

R r
ε1 ε2
ε3
In the figure shown

At x=r Emax1 =q/(2 πεo. ε1r)

At x=r1 Emax2 =q/(2 πεo. ε2r1)
At x=r2 Emax3 =q/(2 πεo. ε3r2)
If all the three dielectrics are operated at
the same maximum electric stress
(Emax1=Emax2=Emax3=Emax) , then:
(1/ ε1r) = (1/ ε2r1) = (1/ ε3r2)
ε 1r = ε 2r 1 = ε 3r 2, get r1 , r2
The operating voltage V is:

r1 r2 R
V E x .dx  E x .dx  E x .dx
r r1 r2

q r1 q r2 q R
 ln  ln  ln
2 o 1 r 2 o 2 r1 2 o 3 r2
 r1 r2 R
V Emax  r ln  r1 ln  r2 ln 
 r r1 r2 
Cable Capacitance
q
C
V
2o

1 r1 1 r 2 1 R
ln  ln  ln
 1 r  2 r1  3 r 2
2. Intersheath Grading

r1
r2
r ε ε ε

V
V1
R
V2
V=0
Intersheath Grading is a method of creating uniform voltage gradient across the
insulation by means of separating the insulation into two or more layers by thin
conductive strips. These strips are kept at different voltage levels through the
secondary of a transformer.
 In this method only one dielectric is used
but the dielectric is separated into two or
more layers by thin metallic intersheaths.
Emax1 = (V-V1)/(r. ln(r1/r))
Emax2 = (V1 –V2)/(r1. ln(r2/r1))
Emax3 = V2/(r2.ln(R/r2))
For the same maximum electric strength:
(r1/r) =(r2/r1) =(R/r2) = α
R/r = α3
Then: (V-V1)/(r.ln α) =(V1-V2)/(r1.ln
α)=(V2/r2.ln α)
(V-V1)/r =(V1-V2)/r1= V2/r2
 If the cable does not have any
intersheath, the maximum stress is:
Emax = V/(r.ln(R/r)) = V/(3r.ln α)
The intersheath radius can be found from
R/r = α 3
(r1/r) =(r2/r1) =(R/r2) = α
The voltages V1, V2 can be found from:
(V-V1)/r =(V1-V2)/r1= V2/r2
Emax /Emax without intersheath =3/(1+ α + α
2
)
where === α > 1
Sheath Internal Radius (R)
R =1.881V / Emax
Will be proved in sections.
Capacitance of Single Core Cables
Assume that the potential difference
between conductor an sheath is V, then
a charge of conductor and sheath will be
+q and –q (C/m)

C= q/V
C= 2 πε/ln(R/r) F/m
Since ε = ε0 . εr

C = 2πε0. εr /ln(R/r) F/m

Where: ε0= 8.854x10-12

εr dielectric constant of insulation.

C= 10-9 εr /(18.ln(R/r)) F/m

C= εr /(18.ln(R/r)) μF/km
 Charging Current

Ich = V/Xc = ω.C.V =

2πf.C.V
It is observed that as cable length and
operating voltage increase, Capacitance (c)
and the charging current will be increase.
So, it is not recommended to transmit power
for a long distance using underground
cables (Overvoltage problems)
Since C= 2 πε/ln(R/r) and Ich
=The
ω.C.V
charging current and the capacitance
are relatively greater for insulated cables
than in O.H.T Lines because of closer
spacing and the higher dielectric constant
of the insulation of the cables. The
charging current is negligible for O.H
circuits at distribution voltage (Short
Lines).
Insulation Resistance
of Single- Core Cables
R =ρ l /A
 
Ri  .dx
2 x l
R
 dx
Ri  .
r
2  l x
 R
Ri  . ln
2 l r
Where:

Ri : insulation resistance in ohms.

ρ: insulation (dielectric) resistivity in Ω.m

l: Cable length (m).
It is observed that the insulation
resistance is inversely proportional to the
cable length.
Dielectric Power Factor
and Dielectric Losses
When a voltage is applied across a perfect
dielectric, there is no dielectric loss because the

capacitor current Ic is at 90 o
ahead of the voltage V.

In practice, there is a small current component Id

(leakage current) that in phase with voltage V, so,

the total current I leads the voltage V by an angle

less than 90 as shown in figure.
Id

Id
Power factor of dielectric :

= Cos фd = Cos (90-δ) = Sin δ

This provides a useful measure of the

quality of the cable dielectric.
For a good dielectric insulation, фd is close to 90o.

Pd =I. V. Cosфd

Cos фd = Sinδ = tan δ = δ (rad)

δ is called dielectric loss angle.

The dielectric Losses: Pd

Pd = Id.V = Ic.tanδ.V = Ic.V.δ == Ic = ωCV

Pd = ωCV2δ δ is in radians

C: Cable capacitance.
V: operating voltage
 Since δ = 90- фd and δ < 0.5o for most
cables.
Here Cos фd should be very small under
all operating conditions.

If it is large, the power loss is large and

the insulation temperature rises. The rise
in temperature causes a rise in power
loss in the dielectric which again
results in additional temperature rise. If
the temperature continues to increase,
the cable insulation will be damaged.
Example
A single-core cable has a conductor
diameter of
2 cm, inside diameter of sheath is 6 cm
and
a length of 6 km. The cable is operated at
60 Hz and 7.2 kV. The dielectric constant
is 3.5, the dielectric power factor is 0.03
(δ=Cosфd) and dielectric resistivity of the
insulation is 1.3x107 MΩ.cm.
Calculate the following:
a- Maximum electric stress.
b- Capacitance of the cable.
c- Charging current.
d- Insulation resistance.
e- Total dielectric losses.
f- If the cable feeds a load at receiving end
of 20A at 0.6 power factor lag, find
sending end current and power factor.
 Solution
a- Emax = V/(r.ln(R/r))
= 6.55 kV/cm
b- C= k/(18.ln(R/r)) μF/km
= 0.176x6 = 1.0619 μF
c- Ich = V/Xc = ω.C.V = 2.88 A
d- Ri =ρ.ln(R/r)/(2πl)
= 3.79 MΩ
e- Pd = Ich.V.Cos фd =622 W
f- load current:
I= 20 ( Cosф – j sinф) =12 - j16

Ich= j2.88

Is= I + Ich =12- j13.12 = 17.78 A

фs = 47.55o

Cos фs = 0.67 lag

Capacitance of a 3-core Cable
.

=
Measurement of Capacitance of 3-core Cables

Cy = C s + 2 C c
Cx = 3 C s
The capacitance per phase is
given by:
C0 = Cs + 3Cc =(Cx/3) + 3((Cy /2) - (Cx /2))

C0 = 3 (Cy /2) - (Cx /6)

In case the test are not available
the following empirical formulas
can be used (p. 347)
Measurement of Capacitance of 3-core Cables
Heating of Cables
Core loss
Dielectric loss
Intersheath loss
 Loop Tests For Location of Faults in Underground Cables

• There are several methods for locating the faults

in underground cables. However, two popular
methods known as loop tests are :
(i) Murray loop test
(ii) Varley loop test
• These simple tests can be used to locate the
earth fault or short-circuit fault in underground
cables provided that a sound cable runs along the
faulty cable.
• Both these tests employ the principle of
Wheatstone bridge for fault location.
 Murray Loop Test
• The Murray loop test is the most common and
accurate method of locating earth fault or short-
circuit fault in underground cables.
(i) Earth fault : Fig. 11.22 shows the circuit diagram
for locating the earth fault by Murray loop test.
Here AB is the sound cable and CD is the faulty cable;
the earth fault occuring at point F.
The far end D of the faulty cable is joined to the far
end B of the sound cable through a low resistance
 Varley Loop Test
• The Varley loop test is also used to locate earth
fault or short-circuit fault in underground cables.
• This test also employs Wheatstone bridge
principle.
• It differs from Murray loop test in that here the
ratio arms P and Q are fixed resistances.
• Balance is obtained by adjusting the variable
resistance S connected to the test end of the
faulty cable.