CHAPTER FOUR

Beams
 CHAPTER OUTLINES

Symmetric and unsymmetrical bending

Bending stresses in beams
Shearing stresses in beams
Slope and deflection of beams
Struts and columns

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 Symmetric bending
In applied mechanics, bending (also known as flexure)
characterizes the behavior of a slender structural element
subjected to an external load applied perpendicularly to a
longitudinal axis of the element.

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Bending can be either symmetric or
Unsymmetrical.
Symmetric Bending: a member having a cross-
sectional area that is symmetrical with respect to at
least one axis(x or y).
Loads are applied on either of principal axis.
Bending moment M is applied about an axis
perpendicular to this axis of symmetry.

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 For the above figures vertical plane is a plane of
symmetry, we expect the member to bend in that
plane
 The neutral axis of the section to coincide with the
axis of the couple.
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 Unsymmetrical Bending : bending couples do not
act in a plane of symmetry of the member, either because
they act in a different plane, or because the member does not
possess any plane of symmetry

For the above figures vertical plane is not a plane of

symmetry, we cannot expect the member to bend in that
plane or the neutral axis of the section to coincide with the
axis of the couple.
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 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS

Edition
Fourth
Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Unsymmetric Bending
Superposition is applied to determine stresses in
the most general case of unsymmetric bending.
• Resolve the couple vector into components along
the principle centroidal axes.
M z  M cos M y  M sin 

• Superpose the component stress distributions

M y
 x   MI z y  Iy
z

• Along the
y neutral axis,

 x  0   M z y  M y y    M cos  y   M
sin   y I z Iy Iz
y I
tan    z
tan  Iy
z
Iy

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 Basic assumption of symmetric bending
1. Material is Homogenous.
2. Cross-section is symmetrical with respect to an axis.
3. Bending Moment is applied about an axis perpendicular to axis of
symmetry.
4. Longitudinal axis which Lies within the neutral surface does not
experience any change in length.
5. All cross-sections of the beam remain plane and perpendicular to the
Longitudinal Axis during deformation.
6. Small lateral strain due to Poisson’s effect have been neglected i.e the
cross-section will retain its shape.

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 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Symmetric Member in Pure Bending

• Internal forces in any cross section are equivalent to a couple. The
moment of the couple is the section bending moment.
• From statics, a couple M consists of two equal and opposite forces.
• The sum of the components of the forces in any direction is zero.
• The moment is the same about any axis perpendicular to the plane of
the couple and zero about any axis contained in the plane.
• These requirements may be applied to the sums of the components and
moments of the statically indeterminate elementary internal forces
• Fx.    x dA  0

M y   z x dA  0

M z    y x dA  M

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 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Bending Deformations
Beam with a plane of symmetry in pure bending:
• member remains symmetric
• bends uniformly to form a circular arc
• cross-sectional plane passes through arc center and
remains planar
• length of top decreases and length of bottom
increases
• a neutral surface must exist that is parallel to the upper
and lower surfaces and for which the length does not
change
• stresses and strains are negative (compressive) above
the neutral plane and positive (tension) below it
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 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Strain Due to Bending

Consider a beam segment of length L.
After deformation, the length of the neutral
surface remains L. At other sections,

L     y 
  L  L     y      y
 x     y   y (strain varies linearly)
L  
m  c or ρ c
 m

 x   cy  m

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 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Stress Due to Bending

• For a linearly elastic material,

 x  E x  cy E m

  c  m (stress varies
y
linearly)
• For static equilibrium,
• For static equilibrium,
y
Fx  0    x dA  c   m
M   yx dA    y  y  m  dA
dA  

0   cm  y
 c

dA M  m  y 2 dA 
mI
First moment with respect to neutral c c
plane is zero. Therefore, the  m  Mc  M
neutral surface must pass through I y
the section centroid. Substituting  x  
S c

 mx   My
I
Elastic flexure formula

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 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Beam Section Properties (Location of Neutral

axis) • The maximum normal stress due to bending,
Mc M
m  
I S
I  section moment of inertia

I
S  c  section
modulus
A beam section with a larger section modulus
will have a lower maximum stress
• Consider a rectangular beam cross section,
I 1 bh3 3
S   12  61 bh  1
c h2
Ah 6
Between two beams with the same cross
sectional area, the beam with the greater depth
will be more effective in resisting bending.
• Structural steel beams are designed to have a
large section modulus.

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 Example
1. A beam is loaded couple at its center C, the magnitude of each
couple being 22.5kN m.
A. Determine the maximum tensile stress in the beam and its
location.
B. The maximum compressive stress and its location.
C. Determine the stress at point A,B,C,D and E

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 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Deformations in a Transverse Cross Section

• Deformation due to bending moment M is
quantified by the curvature of the neutral surface
1  
 m  m 
1 Mc
 c Ec Ec I

M


EI
• Although cross sectional planes remain planar
when subjected to bending moments, in-
plane deformations are nonzero,
• Expansion y the neutral surface and
 y   above
x   z   x  y

contraction below it cause an in-plane
curvature,
 anticlastic curvature

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 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Exercise
SOLUTION:
• Based on the cross section geometry,
calculate the location of the section
centroid and moment of inertia.
Y 
 yA 
I x   I  Ad
A
2 
• Apply the elastic flexural formula to
find the maximum tensile and
compressive stresses.
Mc
m  I
A cast-iron machine part is acted upon by a 3 kN-m
couple. Knowing E = 165 GPa and • Calculate the curvature
neglecting the effects of fillets, determine (a) the 1 M
maximum tensile and compressive stresses, (b) the   EI
radius of curvature.

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Shearing stresses in beams
 Shearing stresses in beams
Vertical shearing forces V΄ C and V΄ D, a horizontal
shearing force ΔH exerted on the lower face of the
element.

The horizontal shear per unit length (N/m), which will be denoted by
the letter q (shear flow), is obtained by dividing both members by Δx:
 Cont…
Q is the first moment with respect to the neutral axis of the portion
of the cross section located either above or below the point at which
q is being computed, and that I is the centroidal moment of inertia
of the entire cross-sectional area.
For a beam with a vertical plane of symmetry, subjected to
various concentrated or distributed loads applied in that plane,
average shearing stress τave on that face of the element is
obtained by dividing ΔH by the area ΔA of the face
 Cont…

The equation shows that the distribution of shearing stresses in a transverse

section of a rectangular beam is parabolic and the shearing stresses are zero at
the top and bottom of the cross section. Making y=0, we obtain the value of the
maximum shearing stress in a given section of a narrow rectangular beam:
Example A beam is made of three planks, 20 by 100 mm in cross
section, nailed together in figure below. Knowing that the
spacing between nails is 25 mm and that the vertical shear in
the beam is V =500 N, determine the shearing force in each
nail.
 Deflection and slope of beams
The elastic curve is the shape taken by the longitudinal, centroidal axis of
the beam due to bending.
Inflection point: is a point in which a bending moment is equal to 0.
Deflection(deformation): Is the vertical distance between the point on the
un-deflected axis and the corresponding point on the deflected axis.
Slope: is defined as the angle between the tangent to the elastic curve at
that point and the un-deflected beam axis
Flexural rigidity (EI): is the product of modulus of elasticity and moment of
inertia
 Sign convection for slope and deflection

(i) Origin at A :If the origin is taken at A, x is taken positive towards right and y
positive upwards. Then.
 Deflection is negative or it is downwards in both cases
 The slope is negative between AC and positive between CB for beam and
negative for cantilever throughout
(ii) Origin at B :1f the origin is taken at B, x is taken positive towards left and y
positive upwards. Then
 Deflection is negative or it is downwards in both cases.
 The slope is positive between AC and negative between CB for beam and
positive for cantilever throughout
Positive values for slope are counterclockwise if the x axis extends positive to
the right, and clockwise if the x axis extends positive to the left.
In either of these cases, positive displacement is upwards.
Method of solving Deflection and slope of beams
1. Double integration method
2. Moment area method
3. Method of superposition
4. Macaulay's method
5. Strain energy method
6. Conjugate beam method
 Double integration method
It is practical for only the simplest types of beams.
It is convenient if the load or internal moment can be expressed as a continuous single
function throughout the beam’s entire length.
Only one free-body diagram was required to determine the bending moment in the beam.
If several different loadings act on the beam, however, this method can
become tedious to apply, because separate loading or moment functions
must be written for each region of the beam.
Each of the functions M (x) leads to a different expression for the slope (x) and the
deflection y (x). Since each expression must contain two constants of integration, a large
number of constants will have to be determined
This is very small for a practice
and for small curvature

𝑑 𝑦
2
1 𝜎 𝑀 𝐸
¿ 2 = 𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡 h 𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦 , = =
𝑑 𝑥 𝑅 𝑦 𝐼 𝑅

T This is the basic differential equation for the

deflection of beams.
 Deflection and slope of beam by direct integration method
 In this method, the equation of the elastic curve is integrated twice to
obtain the deflection and integrate once to get slope of the beam at any
cross-section.
 The constants of integration are found by applying the boundary
conditions.

Slope

Deflection
 The four constants of integration are
determined from the boundary conditions.
As shown on fig above
In similar manner the constant of integration also determined from continuity and
symmetry condition

Continuity condition
Symmetry condition(slope at mid point is equal to
0,
and deflection is maximum at mid point)
Example
 Macaulay's method
This method was devised by Mr. M.H. Macaulay and is known as Macaulay's method.
While applying the double integration method, a separate expression for the bending
moment is needed to be written for each section of the beam, each producing a different
equation with its own constants of integration.
If several different loadings act on the beam, however, this method can become tedious to
apply, because separate loading or moment functions must be written for each region of the
beam
In Macaulay's method, a single equation is written for the bending moment for all the
portions of the beam.
The equation is formed in such a way that the same constants of integration are applicable
to all portions.
A Macaulay bracket function, often referred to as a ‘‘bracket function,’’ is defined as

Note that a bracket function is zero by definition if the expression in the brackets—
namely, is negative; otherwise, it is evaluated as written.
A bracket function can be integrated by the same rule as an ordinary function—namely,
 Moment area method(Mohr’s theorem)

The moment-area method provides a semi graphical technique for finding the
slope and deflection at specific points on the elastic curve of a beam.
Application of the method requires calculating area segments of the beam’s
moment diagram.
The moment-area method is based on two theorems, one used to determine
the slope and the other to determine the displacement(deformation).
Mohr's first moment-area theorem can be stated that ‘’The difference of slopes
between any two points on an elastic curve of a beam is equal to the net area
of the bending moment diagram between these two points divided by El’’.
 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Bending of Members Made of Several Materials

• Consider a composite beam formed from
two materials with E1 and E2.
• Normal strain varies linearly.

 x   y

• Piecewise linear normal stress variation.

1  E1 x   E1 y  2  E 2 x   E 2 y


Neutral axis does not pass through
section centroid of composite section.
• Elemental forces on the section are
E y
dF1  1dA   1 dA dF2   2 dA 
E2 y
 x   My
• Define
 dAa transformed section such that
I
 nE1 dA   E1 y  n n  E2
1    2  n dF2  
 y dA  E1
x x
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 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS

Edition
Fourth
Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Plastic Deformations
• For any member subjected to pure bending
strain varies linearly across the
 x   cy  m
section
• If the member is made of a linearly elastic material,
the neutral axis passes through the section centroid

and  x   My
I
• For a material with a nonlinear stress-strain curve,
the neutral axis location is found by satisfying
Fx    x dA  0 M    y x dA

• For a member with vertical and horizontal planes of

symmetry and a material with the same tensile and
compressive stress-strain relationship, the neutral
axis is located at the section centroid and the stress-
strain relationship may be used to map the strain
distribution from the stress distribution.
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 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS

Edition
Fourth
Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Plastic Deformations
• When the maximum stress is equal to the ultimate
strength of the material, failure occurs and the
corresponding moment MU is referred to as the
ultimate bending moment.

• The modulus of rupture in bending, R , is found

B from
an experimentally determined value of MU and a
fictitious linear
M c
stress distribution.
RB  U

•R B may be used to determine MU of any member

made of the same material and with the same
cross sectional shape but different dimensions.

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 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS

Edition
Fourth
Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Members Made of an Elastoplastic Material

• Rectangular beam made of an elastoplastic material
x  Mc
m  I
Y
I
 m  Y M Y c  Y  maximum elastic
moment
• If the moment is increased beyond the maximum
elastic moment, plastic zones develop around an
elastic core.
 1 Y2 
M 32 MY  1 y  yY  elastic core half -
 3 c 2 
thickness
• In the limit as the moment is increased further, the
elastic core thickness goes to zero, corresponding to a
fully plastic deformation.
M p  23 M Y  plastic
moment
M
k  M p  shape factor (depends only on cross section
Y
shape)
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 Struts and columns
A structural member, subjected to an axial compressive force, is called a
strut. A strut may be horizontal, inclined or even vertical.
But a vertical strut, used in buildings or frames, is called a column.

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