2.

SEMI-CONDUCTOR DIODES AND THEIR

APPLICATIONS
A semiconductor diode is a The anode which is the positive
terminal of a diode is represented
two terminal electronic
with A and the cathode, which is
component with a PN junction.
the negative terminal is represented
This is also called as with K.
a Rectifier. To know the anode and cathode of a
practical diode, a fine line is drawn on
the diode which means cathode, while
the other end represents anode.

By Elias Damite 1
 FORMATION OF A DIODE
 As opposite charges attract, few
 If a P-type and an N-type material holes in P-type tend to go to n-side,
are brought close to each other, whereas few electrons in N-type
both of them join to form a junction, tend to go to P-side.
as shown in the figure below.  As both of them travel towards the
junction, holes and electrons
recombine with each other to
neutralize and forms ions.

By Elias Damite 2
FORMATION OF A DIODE
 The formation of negative ions on P-side and
positive ions on N-side results in the
formation of a narrow-charged region on
either side of the PN junction.
 This region is now free from movable charge
carriers.
 The ions present here have been stationary
and maintain a region of space between
them without any charge carriers.
 this is also called as Barrier junction.
 This has another name called as Depletion
region meaning it depletes both the regions.

By Elias Damite 3
 BIASING OF A DIODE
• When a diode or any two-terminal
Forward Biased Condition
component is connected in a circuit,
it has two biased conditions with the  When a diode is connected in a
given supply. They are circuit, with its anode to the
positive terminal and cathode to
• Forward biased condition and
the negative terminal of the
• Reverse biased condition. supply, then such a connection is
said to be forward
biased condition.
 A diode conducts well in forward
biased condition.

By Elias Damite 4
 BIASING OF A DIODE
Reverse Biased Condition  A diode cannot conduct in reverse
 When a diode is connected in a biased condition.
circuit, with its anode to the
negative terminal and cathode to
the positive terminal of the supply,
then such a connection is said to
be Reverse biased condition.

By Elias Damite 5
 WORKING UNDER FORWARD BIASED
With the repulsive force provided
When anode and cathode are
by positive terminal to holes and
connected to positive and
by negative terminal to
negative terminals
electrons, the recombination
respectively, the holes in P- takes place in the junction.
type and electrons in N-type
The supply voltage should be
tend to move across the
such high that it forces the
junction, breaking the barrier.
movement of electrons and holes
There exists a free flow of through the barrier and to cross
current with this, almost it to provide forward current.
eliminating the barrier.
By Elias Damite 6
 WORKING UNDER FORWARD BIASED
Forward Current is the
current produced by the
diode when operating in
forward biased condition
and it is indicated by If.

By Elias Damite 7
 WORKING UNDER REVERSE BIASED

When an external voltage is applied

Hence both will be away from
to a diode such that it increases the
potential barrier and restricts the the potential
flow of current is called as Reverse barrier increasing the
bias. junction resistance and
When anode and cathode are preventing any electron to
connected to negative and positive cross the junction.
terminals respectively, the electrons
are attracted towards the positive
terminal and holes are attracted
towards the negative terminal.
By Elias Damite 8
 WORKING UNDER REVERSE BIASED

• The following figure explains this.

The graph of conduction when no
field is applied and when some
external field is applied are also
drawn.

By Elias Damite 9
 WORKING UNDER REVERSE BIASED
 With the increasing reverse bias, the  Reverse current is the current produced by
junction has few minority carriers to the diode when operating in reverse biased
cross the junction. This current is condition and it is indicated by Ir.
normally negligible.  Hence a diode provides high resistance path in
 This reverse current is almost constant reverse biased condition and doesn’t conduct,
when the temperature is constant. where it provides a low resistance path in
forward biased condition and conducts.
 But when this reverse voltage increases
 Thus, we can conclude that a diode is a one-
further, then a point called reverse
way device which conducts in forward bias and
breakdown occurs, where an avalanche
acts as an insulator in reverse bias.
of current flows through the junction.
 This behaviour makes it work as a rectifier,
 This high reverse current damages the
which converts AC to DC.
device.

By Elias Damite 10
 PEAK INVERSE VOLTAGE

• Peak Inverse Voltage is shortly • Hence, this voltage is

called as PIV.
considered during
• It states the maximum voltage
applied in reverse bias. reverse biased condition.
• The Peak Inverse Voltage can be • It denotes how a diode
defined as “The maximum
can be safely operated in
reverse voltage that a diode
can withstand without being reverse bias.
destroyed”.
By Elias Damite 11
 PURPOSE OF A DIODE

• A diode is used to block the electric • Thus, the output will be DC removing
current flow in one direction, i.e. in the AC components.
forward direction and to block in • The circuits such as half wave and full
reverse direction. wave rectifiers are made using diodes,
• This principle of diode makes it work which can be studied in Electronic
as a Rectifier. Circuits tutorials.
• A diode is also used as a Switch.
• For a circuit to allow the current flow
in one direction but to stop in the • It helps a faster ON and OFF for the
other direction, the rectifier diode is output that should occur in a quick
the best choice. rate.
By Elias Damite 12
 VOLTAGE-CURRENT CHARACTERISTIC OF A DIODE
V-I Characteristic for Forward Bias:-
 With 0 V across the diode, there is no forward current.
 As you gradually increase the forward-bias voltage, the forward
current and the voltage across the diode gradually increase.
 A portion of the forward-bias voltage is dropped across the
limiting resistor.
 When the forward-bias voltage is increased to a value where the
voltage across the diode reaches approximately 0.7 V (barrier
potential), the forward current begins to increase rapidly.
VF= Forward Voltage

IF= Forward Current

By Elias Damite 13
 V-I CHARACTERISTIC FOR REVERSE BIAS
 When a reverse-bias voltage is applied across  As you continue to increase the bias
a diode, there is only an extremely small voltage, the current continues to
reverse current (IR) through the pn junction.
increase very rapidly, but the voltage
 With 0 V across the diode, there is no reverse
across the diode increases very little
current. As you gradually increase the reverse-
above VBR.
bias voltage, there is a very small reverse
current and the voltage across the diode  Breakdown, with exceptions, is not a
increases.
normal mode of operation for most pn
 When the applied bias voltage is increased to
junction devices.
a value where the reverse voltage across the
diode (VR) reaches the breakdown value (VBR),
the reverse current begins to increase rapidly.

By Elias Damite 14
 COMBINE THE CURVES

Combine the curves for

both forward bias and
reverse bias, and you have
the complete V-I
characteristic curve for a
diode

By Elias Damite 15
 THE IDEAL DIODE MODEL
 The ideal model of a diode is the least accurate
approximation and can be represented by a simple
switch.
 When the diode is forward-biased, it ideally acts like a
closed (on) switch.
 When the diode is reverse-biased, it ideally acts like an
open (off) switch.
 The ideal V-I characteristic curve graphically depicts the
ideal diode operation.
 Since the barrier potential and the forward dynamic
resistance are neglected, the diode is assumed to have a
zero voltage across it when forward-biased, as indicated
by the portion of the curve on the positive vertical axis.
 VF =0 V The forward current is determined by the bias
voltage and the limiting resistor using
By Elias Ohm’s law.
Damite 16
 Since the reverse current is neglected,
its value is assumed to be zero, as
indicated in by the portion of the curve
on the negative horizontal axis. IR=0
 The reverse voltage equals the bias
voltage. VR=VBIAS
 You may want to use the ideal model
when you are troubleshooting or trying
to figure out the operation of a circuit
and are not concerned with more exact
values of voltage or current.

By Elias Damite 17
 THE PRACTICAL DIODE MODEL
 The complete model of a diode is  When the diode is forward-biased, it
the most accurate approximation acts as a closed switch in series
and includes the barrier potential, with the equivalent barrier potential
the small forward dynamic voltage (VB) and the small forward
resistance(r’d) and the large internal dynamic resistance as indicated.
reverse resistance(r’R).  When the diode is reverse-biased, it
 The reverse resistance is considered acts as an open witch in parallel
because it provides a path for the with the large internal reverse
reverse current, which is included in resistance as shown.
this diode model.  The barrier potential does not affect
reverse bias, so it is not a factor.
IR=
By Elias Damite 18
 EXAMPLE:
1. Determine the forward voltage and
forward current for the diode in for each
of the diode models.
Also find the voltage across the limiting
resistor in each case (ideal and complete
practical model).
Assume r’d=10Ω at the determined value of
forward current.

By Elias Damite 19
 EXAMPLE:
2. Determine the reverse voltage and
reverse current for the diode for each of
the diode models.
Also find the voltage across the limiting
resistor in each case.
Assume IR=1 µA.

By Elias Damite 20
 APPLICATION OF DIODES
Half-Wave rectifiers
• Because of their ability to conduct current
in one direction and block current in the
other direction, diodes are used in circuits
called rectifiers that convert ac voltage
into dc voltage.
• Rectifiers are found in all dc power
supplies that operate from an ac voltage
source.

By Elias Damite 21
 HALF-WAVE RECTIFIERS
• When the input voltage goes
negative during the second half of
its cycle, the diode is reverse-
biased.
• There is no current, so the voltage
across the load resistor is 0 V.
• The net result is that only the
positive half-cycles of the ac input
voltage appear across the load.

By Elias Damite 22
 AVERAGE VALUE
• The average value of the half-wave
rectified output voltage is the value
you would measure on a dc voltmeter.
• Mathematically, it is determined by
finding the area under the curve over
a full cycle and then dividing by the
number of radians in a full cycle.
• Vp is the peak value of the voltage. When the practical diode model is used with the barrier
potential of 0.7 V considered,
• This equation shows that VAVG

• Is proximately 31.8% of Vp for a half-

wave rectified voltage.
By Elias Damite 23
 EXERCISE

• Draw the output voltages of each

rectifier for the indicated input
voltages.

By Elias Damite 24
 FULL-WAVE RECTIFIERS
• Allows unidirectional (one-way) 1. A center-tapped rectifier
current through the load during the
• It is a type of full-wave rectifier that
entire of the input cycle, whereas a
uses two diodes connected to the
half-wave rectifier allows current
secondary of a center-tapped
through the load only during one-
transformer.
half of the cycle.
• The input voltage is coupled
• The result of full-wave rectification
through the transformer to the
is an output voltage with a
center-tapped secondary.
frequency twice the input frequency
and that pulsates every half-cycle of • Half of the total secondary voltage
the input. appears between the center tap and
each end of the secondary winding.
By Elias Damite 25
 A CENTER-TAPPED RECTIFIER
• If the transformer’s turns ratio is 1,
the peak value of the rectified
output voltage equals half the
peak value of the primary input
voltage less the barrier potential,

By Elias Damite 26
 EXERCISE

• Show the voltage waveforms across

each half of the secondary winding
and across RL when a 100 V peak
sine wave is applied to the primary
winding.

By Elias Damite 27
BRIDGE FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER OPERATION

• When the input cycle is positive as

in part (a), diodes D1 and D2 are
forward-biased and conduct current
in the direction shown.
• A voltage is developed across RL
that looks like the positive half of
the input cycle.
• During this time, diodes D3 and D4
are reverse-biased.
By Elias Damite 28
BRIDGE FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER OPERATION
• When the input cycle is negative
diodes D3 and D4 are forward
biased and conduct current in the
same direction through RL as during
the positive half-cycle.
• During the negative half-cycle, D1
and D2 are reverse-biased.
• A full-wave rectified output voltageDiodes are always in series with the load resistor during both
the positive and negative half-cycles.
appears across RL as a result of this
action.

By Elias Damite 29
 FILTER
• The filter is simply a capacitor
connected from the rectifier output
to ground.
• RL represents the equivalent
resistance of a load.
• We will use the half-wave rectifier to
illustrate the basic principle and
then expand the concept to full-
wave rectification.

By Elias Damite 30
 RIPPLE VOLTAGE
• The capacitor quickly charges at the • For a given input frequency, the
beginning of a cycle and slowly output frequency of a full-wave
discharges through RL after the rectifier is twice that of a half-wave
positive peak of the input voltage rectifier.
(when the diode is reverse-biased). • This makes a full-wave rectifier easier
• The variation in the capacitor voltage to filter because of the shorter time
due to the charging and discharging between peaks.
is called the ripple voltage. • When filtered, the full-wave rectified
• Generally, ripple is undesirable; thus, voltage has a smaller ripple than does
the smaller the ripple, the better the a half-wave voltage for the same load
filtering action. resistance and capacitor values.

By Elias Damite 31
 RIPPLE FACTOR (R)

• The capacitor discharges less during

the shorter interval between full
wave pulses.
• The ripple factor (r) is an
indication of the effectiveness of the
filter and is defined as.

By Elias Damite 32
 RIPPLE FACTOR (R)

• The ripple factor can be lowered by

increasing the value of the filter
capacitor or increasing the load
resistance.
• The variable Vp(rect) is the unfiltered
peak rectified voltage.
• Notice that if RL or C increases, the
ripple voltage decreases and the dc
voltage increases.

By Elias Damite 33
 EXERCISE

• Determine the
ripple factor for
the filtered bridge
rectifier with a
load as indicated

By Elias Damite 34
 VOLTAGE REGULATORS
• While filters can reduce the ripple • The capacitor-input filter reduces the
from power supplies to a low value, input ripple to the regulator to an
the most effective approach is a acceptable level.
combination of a capacitor-input • The combination of a large capacitor and
filter used with a voltage regulator. a voltage regulator helps produce an
• A voltage regulator is connected to excellent power supply.
the output of a filtered rectifier and
maintains a constant output voltage
(or current) despite changes in the
input, the load current, or the
temperature.
By Elias Damite 35
 DIODE LIMITERS (CLIPPER)
• There are a variety of diode networks
• There are two general categories of
called clippers that have the ability to
clippers:
“clip” off a portion of the input signal
without distorting the remaining part of 1. series and
the alternating waveform. 2. parallel.
• The half-wave rectifier of is an example • The series configuration is defined
of the simplest form of diode clipper as one where the diode is in series
one resistor and diode. with the load, while the parallel
• Depending on the orientation of the variety has the diode in a branch
diode, the positive or negative region parallel to the load.
of the input signal is “clipped” off.

By Elias Damite 36
 DIODE LIMITERS (CLIPPER)
Series  There is no general procedure for
analysing networks such as Fig below,
but there are a few thoughts to keep in
mind as you work toward a solution.

By Elias Damite 37
 FEW THOUGHTS TO TOWARD A SOLUTION
1. Make a mental sketch of the 3. Be continually aware of the defined
response of the network based on terminals and polarity of vo.
the direction of the diode and the
applied voltage levels.(vi be
greater than V).
2. Determine the applied voltage
(transition voltage) that will cause
a change in state for the diode.
(vd=0 V and id =0 A and vi =V)

By Elias Damite 38
FEW THOUGHTS TO TOWARD A SOLUTION
4. It can be helpful to sketch the input
signal above the output and
determine the output at
instantaneous values of the input.

By Elias Damite 39
 EXAMPLE
1. Determine the output waveform for Solution
the network.

By Elias Damite 40
 EXAMPLE 2
2. Repeat Example 1 for the square-
wave input as Solution

By Elias Damite 41
 PARALLEL CLIPPER
• The analysis of parallel
configurations is very similar to that
applied to series configurations.

By Elias Damite 42
 CLAMPING
• The clamping network is one • The magnitude of R and C
that will “clamp” a signal to a must be chosen such that
different dc level. the time constant Ʈ=RC is
• The network must have a large enough to ensure that
capacitor, a diode, and a the voltage across the
resistive element, but it can capacitor does not
also employ an independent discharge significantly
dc supply to introduce an
during the interval the
additional shift.
diode is nonconducting.
By Elias Damite 43
 STEPS N ANALYSING CLAMPING NETWORKS

 Start the analysis of clamping networks  Throughout the analysis maintain a

by considering that part of the input continual awareness of the location
signal that will forward bias the diode. and reference polarity for vo to
 During the period that the diode is in ensure that the proper levels for vo
the “on” state, assume that the are obtained.
capacitor will charge up instantaneously
 Keep in mind the general rule that the
to a voltage level determined by the
total swing of the total output must
network.
match the swing of the input signal.
 Assume that during the period when the
 For all practical purposes the
diode is in the “off” state the capacitor
will hold on to its established voltage capacitor will fully charge or discharge
level. in five time constants.
By Elias Damite 44
 EXAMPLE
1. Determine vo for the networkSolution

By Elias Damite 45
 TYPES OF DIODE

1. Zener diode Zener diode

This is a special kind of diode which permits current flow
2. Switching Diode
not only in forward direction, but also in reverse direction.
3. Varactor Diode
The breakdown voltage of a Zener diode is very low.
4. Tunnel diode But this diode allows the reverse current to pass
through it, once this breakdown voltage is
5. Schottky Diode
exceeded.
6. Photo Diode That breakdown voltage is called as Zener Voltage.
7. LED  Hence there is a controlled breakdown which does not
damage the diode when a reverse current above the
8. Laser Diode
Zener voltage passes through a Zener diode.
By Elias Damite 46
V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF A ZENER DIODE
• The V-I Characteristics of a Zener
diode are common for any diode
when operated in forward bias.
• But the reverse bias operation of a
Zener diode makes it very important
to consider.

By Elias Damite 47
 APPLICATIONS OF ZENER DIODE

This diode has many applications  For peak clipping or limiting in wave
such as − shaping circuits.
 It is mostly used as a Voltage  As a Surge protector in many
Regulator. circuits.
 Provides fixed reference voltage in  For meter protection against
transistor biasing circuits. damage from accidental
applications.

By Elias Damite 48
 SWITCHING DIODE

This is a normal single PN junction The junction capacitance of this

diode which is especially designed diode is made very low so as to
for switching purposes. minimize other effects.
This diode can exhibit two states of The switching speed is made quite
high and low resistance clearly high. When the diode has high
which can be used alternatively. resistance, it works as an open
switch and it acts as a closed switch
during low resistance.
 This transition occurs at a faster
rate in switching diode, than in any 49
By Elias Damite
ordinary one.
 APPLICATIONS OF SWITCHING DIODE

These have many applications Used as reverse polarity

such as − protectors
Used in high-speed rectifying Used for both General
circuits purpose and high-speed
Used in ring modulators switching applications

Used in radio frequency

receivers

By Elias Damite 50
 VARACTOR DIODE
 A junction diode has two potentials  The Varactor diode is also called
on both sides where the depletion as Vari Cap or Volt Cap.
region can act as a dielectric.
 Hence there exists a capacitance.
 The Varactor diode is a special case
diode that is operated in reverse
bias, where the junction capacitance
is varied.

By Elias Damite 51
 VARACTOR DIODE
 If this reverse voltage is
If the reverse voltage applied is
completely null, then
increased, the width of the
the capacitance will be at
dielectric region increases,
its maximum.
which reduces the junction
capacitance.
When the reverse voltage decreases,
the width of the dielectric decreases,
which increases the capacitance.

By Elias Damite 52
 APPLICATIONS OF VARACTOR DIODE
This diode has many applications  Used as frequency multiplier in
such as local oscillator circuits.
It is used as a Voltage variable
capacitor.
It is used in variable LC tank circuit.
Used as Automatic frequency
control.
Used as Frequency Modulator.
Used as RF Phase shifter.
By Elias Damite 53
 TUNNEL DIODE
If the impurity concentration of a
normal PN junction is highly increased,
this Tunnel diode is formed.
It is also known as Esaki diode, after
its inventor.
When the impurity concentration in a
diode increases, the width of depletion
region decreases, extending some extra
force to the charge carriers to cross the
junction.

By Elias Damite 54
 APPLICATIONS OF TUNNEL DIODE

There are many applications for Used in Microwave oscillators

tunnel diode such as − Used in relaxation oscillators

Used as a high-Speed Switching

device
Used as a memory storage device

By Elias Damite 55
 SCHOTTKY DIODE
This is a special type of diode in The metal used in this Schottky
which a PN junction is replaced by a diode may be gold, silver, platinum
metal semiconductor junction. or tungsten etc.
The P-type semiconductor in a As well, for the semiconductor
normal PN junction diode is replaced material other than silicon, gallium
by a metal and N-type material is arsenide is mostly used.
joined to the metal.
This combination has no depletion
region between them.

By Elias Damite 56
 OPERATION OF SCHOTTKY DIODE
When no voltage is applied or when the Advantages
circuit is unbiased, the electrons in the • There are many advantages of Schottky
N-type material has lower energy level diode such as −

than the ones in the metal. • It is a unipolar device and hence no reverse
currents are formed.
If the diode is then forward biased,
• Its forward resistance is low.
these electrons in the N-type gain some
• Voltage drops are very low.
energy and move with some higher
energy. • Rectification is fast and easy with the
Schottky diode.
Hence these electrons are called • There is no depletion region present and
as Hot Carriers. hence, no junction capacitance.
• So, the diode gets to OFF position quickly.

By Elias Damite 57
 APPLICATIONS

There are many applications of Schottky diode

such as
Used as a detector diode
Used as a Power rectifier
Used in RF mixer circuits
Used in power circuits
Used as clamping diodes
By Elias Damite 58
 PHOTO DIODE
Photo diode, as the name This diode is generally
implies, is a PN junction which operated in reverse
works on light. bias condition.
The intensity of light affects the The light when focused on the
level of conduction in this diode.
depletion region, electron-hole
The photo diode has a P type pairs are formed and flow of
material and an N-type material electron occurs.
with an intrinsic material or
This conduction of electrons
a depletion region in between.
depends upon the intensity of
light focused.
By Elias Damite 59
 ADVANTAGES OF PHOTO DIODE

Photo diode has many

advantages such as High sensitivity to light
Low noise Low cost
High gain Small size
High speed operation Long lifetime

By Elias Damite 60
 APPLICATIONS OF PHOTO DIODE

There are many

Used in Demodulation
applications for photo
Used in switching circuits
diode such as
Used in Encoders
Character detection
Used in optical
Objects detection
communication equipment
Used in circuits that require
high stability and speed.

By Elias Damite 61
 END OF CHAPTER-TWO

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By Elias Damite 62