Principles of Extractive Metallurgy

Lecture 05:
a. Gravity/Density based Mineral Separation/Concentration
b. Mineral Classification: Separation in Flowing Fluid

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 Concepts:
• Density/Gravity Separation/Concentration and Concentration Criteria
• Mechanical and Pneumatic Jigging
• Shaking Concentrator like Wilfley table
• Flowing Film Concentration by Humphreys Spiral, Reichert Cone, Pinched
Sluice
• Dense Media Separators by Static and Gravitational Vessels
• Principles of Classification
• Terminal velocity expression for small particles (Stokes’ law) and large particles
(Newton’s law)
• Free settling ration for small particles and large particles and hindered settling
ratio
• Different industrial classifiers (hydraulic, vertical and, horizontal current and
centrifugal)
• Schematic diagram and operating principles of important classifiers (Horizontal
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multi-product, settling cone, hydrocyclone, elutriator, rake and spiral)
 Keywords:
• Gravity Concentration • Classification
• Concentration Criteria • Stokes’ law of terminal velocity
• Jigging • Newton’s law of terminal velocity
• Shaking Concentrator • Free settling ratio
• Wilfley Table • Hindered settling ratio
• Flowing Film Concentration • Horizontal multi-product classifier
• Humphreys Spiral • Horizontal current classifier
• Reichert Cone • Settling cone classifier
• Pinched Sluice • Rake classifier
• Dense Media Separators • Spiral classifier
• Elutriator
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 Density
Separators
• The density separator relies on the principle of hindered
settling to separate particles of greater density and/or
size from those of lower density and smaller size.
• Gravity concentration methods separate minerals by their
relative movement in response to gravity or by resistance
to motion offered by a viscous fluid.
• It can treat a great variety of materials, ranging from
galena (sp. gr. 7.5) to coal (sp. gr. 1.3), at particle sizes in
some cases below 50 µm.
• GS is relatively simple, low cost and environmentally
benign process.
• It is the main concentrating methods for ores of iron, tin
tungsten, coal and many industrial minerals.
 Gravity Concentration
• For effective separation a marked density difference (concentration criterion,
CC) should exists between the mineral and the gangue. Concentration criterion
is given by where , and are the sp. gr. of the heavy mineral, light mineral, and
fluid respectively.
• Gravity concentrating operations allow particles to be held slightly apart so that
they can move relative to each other and separate into layers of dense and light
minerals.
 Gravity Separation Operations
• 1. Jigging - uses an essentially vertical expansion and contraction of a bed of
particles by repeated (50 - 300 cycles/minute) pulsation of fluid caused by valve
and plunger (mechanical) or air pressurization-depressurization (pneumatic).
Ex: Harz Jig, Denver Jig, Baum Jig, Batac Jig etc.
• 2. Shaking Concentrators - employ a horizontal motion to the solids-fluid stream
to effectively fluidize the particles causing segregation of light and heavy particles.
Ex: Shaking/Wilfley table
• 3. Flowing Film Concentrators - initiates particle separation by a layer of slurry
flowing down an inclined surface under the gravity influence.
Ex: Humphreys Spriral, Reichert Cone, Pinched Sluice
• 4. Dense/Heavy medium separation – separation as float and sink in a thick
suspension (pulp) or heavy liquid.
Ex: Gravitational and Centrifugal with 2 to 3 products separation.
Jigging

Initial acceleration of the mineral grains is independent of size and dependent

only on the densities of the solid and the fluid.
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Jigging (Mechanical)
A high-grade heavy product is produced in the
first compartment, successively lower grades Harz Jig
being produced in the others, and the light
product overflowing the final compartment.

Denver Mineral Jig

Plunger moves up
and down vertically
in four successive
compartments

The rotary water valve can be adjusted so as to synchronize between

the valve and the plungers achieved by a rubber timing belt.
 Jigging (Pneumatic/Air pulsating)
Batac Jig Baum Jig

Air under pressure is forced into a large air

chamber on one side of the jig vessel, causing
Designed with a series of multiple air chambers,
pulsation & suction to the jig water thus causing
usually 2 to a cell, extending under the jig for its
particle stratification (unequal & less efficiency).
full width, giving uniform air distribution. used to
Used for beneficiation of wide size range coal.
produce high-grade lump ore and sinter-feed iron
ore concentrates.
Humphreys Spirals
Spirals concentrators are used for treatment of heavy mineral sand deposits carrying ilmenite,
rutile, zircon, and monazite, and in recent years in the recovery of fine coal.
Reichert cones
Pinched Sluice

• It is an inclined launder about 1 m long,

narrowing from about 200 mm in width
at the feed end to about 25 mm at the
discharge.
• Pulp of 50- 65% solids by weight is fed
with minimal turbulence and stratifies as
it descends; at the discharge end these
strata are separated by various means,
such as by splitters, or
by some type of tray.
Shaking/Wilfley table
Dense Medium Separation (DMS)
• Heavy liquids of suitable density are used, so that minerals lighter than the liquid float, denser
than it sink. Separating vessel are classified into gravitational (static) and centrifugal (dynamic)
vessels.
• Separation in magnetic liquids (magnetite nanoparticles in water, oil, ester with surfactants for
stability) can be applied for nonmagnetic material of significantly different densities. Their
apparent density can be changed from about 1.3 (no magnetic field) to about 20 g/cm3 at high
intensity of the magnetic field.
Dense Medium Separation: Static Vessels
Drum
Separator

Wemco
Cone
Separator

Torque-flow-
pump sink
Compressed-air
removal
sink removal
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DMS: Dynamic Vessels

In addition to coal
processing (250 t/h), the
LARCODEMS is used in
concentrating iron ore up
LArge COal to 800 t/h of -90 +6 mm
DEnse Medium feeds and recycling plastics.
Separator

Vorsyl Separator

Effective range of gravity

and dense medium devices
 Classification: Introduction
• Classification is a method of separating mixtures of minerals into two or more
products on the basis of the velocity with which the grains fall through a fluid
(water or air).
• Wet classification is generally applied to mineral particles which are considered
too fine to be sorted efficiently by screening.
• Since the velocity of particles in a fluid medium is dependent on the size, specific
gravity and shape of the particles, the principles of classification are important in
mineral separations utilizing gravity concentrators.

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 Free Settling: Drag Force and Terminal velocity
A sphere (of diameter d, mass m and density s) moving in Drag force = D
m’g = d3f g
fluid (of density f and viscosity ) will encounter resistance
or drag force (D) apposing it’s net movement and at
equilibrium (no net force) the particle will move at constant v = vt when
mg = m’g + D
velocity (no acceleration) called terminal velocity (vt). D = d3g(s - f)
D = 3dv [due to viscous resistance valid in laminar
flow region for Re < 1] mg = d3s g
D = 2v2f [due to turbulent resistance valid for Re > 1]
Re = Reynold’s Number = vf/
In laminar flow region: 3dvt = d3g(s - f)
 vt = d2g(s - f)/18 [Stokes’ Law]

In turbulent flow region: 2vt2f = d3g(s - f)

 vt = [3dg(s - f)/f]0.5 [Newton’s Law]
 Classification: Principles
 Classifiers is essentially a sorting column in which a fluid is rising at a uniform
velocity (v). Particles introduced into the sorting column either sink or rise
according to whether their vt > v or vt < v.
 Consider two mineral particles of densities a and b and
diameters da and db respectively, falling in a fluid of density
f at exactly the same settling rate (vt). Then from Stokes'
law free-settling ratio of the two minerals
da2(a - f) = db2(b - f) or
Similarly from Newton's law, the free settling ratio of large
particles is da(a - f) = db(b - f) or
Classification: Free Settling Ratio
 The general expression for free-settling ratio can be deduced as
where n = 0.5 for small particles (< 50 µm) obeying Stokes‘ law and n = 1 for
large particles (>0.5 cm) obeying Newton' s law.
 The value of n lies in the range 0.5 - 1 for particles in the intermediate size range of 50

µm - 0.5 cm.
Ex1: Consider a mixture of quartz (density = 2.65 gm/cc) and galena (density = 7.5 gm/cc)
particles classifying in water. For small particles, obeying Stokes' law, the free settling ratio
is = 1.99 i.e. galena particle will settle at the same rate as a quartz particle which has a
diameter 1.99 times larger .
For large particles obeying Newton's law, the free settling ratio is
= 3.94
The density difference between the particles has more pronounced
effect on classification at coarser size ranges.
 Classification: Hindered settling
 As the proportion of solids in the pulp increases, the effect of particle crowding
becomes more apparent and the falling rate of the particles begins to decrease. The
system begins to behave as a heavy liquid whose density is that of the pulp () rather
than that of the carrier liquid ().
 The resistance to fall is mainly due to the turbulence created, and a modified form of
Newton's law can be used to determine the approximate falling rate of the particles.
Free Hindered vt = [3dg(s - p)/p]0.5
settling settling

Hindered-settling reduces the effect of size, while

increasing the effect of density on classification.
The hindered-settling ratio is greater than the free-
settling ratio, and the denser the pulp, the greater is
the ratio of the diameter of equal settling particles.
 Classifier

Hydraulic Vertical current Horizontal current Hydrocyclone

hindered-settling types, free-settling type and
more effect of density Elutriator continuously operating
more effect on the size
on the separation. classifying device that
i) Settling cones, ii) Mechanical utilizes centrifugal
e.g., Rake and Spiral classifiers
force to accelerate the
settling rate of particles.

Settling cone
(stationary)
classifier
Horizontal (multi-product) Classifier
Mechanical Classifier

Spiral Classifier
Rake Classifier

Settled material is slowly moved up the incline to the discharge

by rake or spiral without disturbing or intermixing particles.
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 Hydrocyclone
Most important classifier devices in the minerals
industry and extremely efficient at fine separation
sizes.
It has replaced mechanical classifiers in many
applications, its advantages being simplicity and
high capacity relative to its size.

A l hydrocyclone consists of a conically shaped vessel, open at its

underflow (apex), joined to a cylindrical section with a tangential
feed inlet. The top of the cylindrical section is closed with a plate
through which passes an axially mounted overflow pipe
(extended by a short section known as the vortex finder).
Cyclone Principle & Performance/Partition/Selectivity Curve

The sharpness of cut value is

Particles thrown outside the determined by the slope of the
envelope of zero vertical velocity by central section. The closer the
the greater centrifugal force & exit slope is to vertical, the greater the
classification efficiency.
via the underflow, while particles
swept to the center by the greater
drag force, leave in the overflow.
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Vertical Current Classifier

In fluidized classifiers particle of size d50 has the same

chance to move upward and downward.
u = velocity of upward movement of medium,
ν = velocity of free falling of particle in medium,
V = (ν – u) = velocity of particle movement in
relation to classifier

Elutriator
References
1. Mineral Processing Technology, 8th Ed., Barry A. Wills and James
A. Finch, 2016, Elsevier Ltd.
2. Mineral Processing, Jan Drzymala, 2007, Wroclaw University of
Technology.
3.Chemical Metallurgy: Principles and Practice. Chiranjib Kumar
Gupta, 2003, WILEY-VCH

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