Descriptive Statistics: Tabular and

Graphical Displays

Chapter 2

Slide
1
 Overview

Summarizing Data for

Categorical Variables
• Frequency, and Classes
• Bar Charts, Pie Charts

Summarizing Data for

Numerical Variables
• Frequency, and Number, Width and Limit of
Classes
• Dot Plot, Histogram, Cumulative Distributions,
and Steam-and-Leaf Display
Summarizing Data for Two
Variables Using Graphical
Displays
• Scatter Diagram, Side-by-Side and Stacked Bar
Charts

Slide
2
Frequency Distribution for Categorical
Data

Slide
3
 Frequency Distribution

A frequency distribution is a tabular summary of

data showing the number (frequency) of
observations in each of several non-overlapping
categories or classes.

The objective is to provide insights about the data

that cannot be quickly obtained by looking only at
the original data.

Slide
4
 Frequency Distribution

 Example: Marada Inn

Guests staying at Marada Inn were asked to rate
the
quality of their accommodations as being
excellent,
above average, average, below average, or
poor.Average
Below The Average Above Average
Above Average
ratings provided byAbove
a sample of 20Above
Average Average
guests are:
Above Average Below Average Below Average
Average Poor Poor
Above Average Excellent Above Average
Average Above Average Average
Above Average Average

Slide
5
 Frequency Distribution

 Example: Marada Inn

Rating Frequency
Poor 2
Below Average 3
Average 5
Above Average 9
Excellent 1
Total 20

Slide
6
 Relative Frequency Distribution

The relative frequency of a class is the fraction or

proportion of the total number of data items
belonging to the class.

A relative frequency distribution is a tabular

summary of a set of data showing the relative
frequency for each class.

Slide
7
 Percent Frequency Distribution

The percent frequency of a class is the relative

frequency multiplied by 100.

A percent frequency distribution is a tabular

summary of a set of data showing the percent
frequency for each class.

Slide
8
 Relative Frequency and
Percent Frequency Distributions
 Example: Marada Inn

Rating Frequency
Poor 2
Below Average 3
Average 5
Above Average 9
Excellent 1
Total 20

Slide
9
 Relative Frequency and
Percent Frequency Distributions
 Example: Marada Inn

Relative Percent
Rating Frequency Frequency
Poor .10 10
Below Average .15 15
Average .25 25 .10(100) =
10
Above Average .45 45
Excellent .05 5
Total 1.00 100

1/20 = .05
Slide
10
Summarizing Categorical Data

Bar and Pie Charts

Slide
11
 Bar Chart

 A bar chart is a graphical display for depicting

qualitative data.
 On one axis (usually the horizontal axis), we specify
the labels that are used for each of the classes.
 A frequency, relative frequency, or percent frequenc
scale can be used for the other axis (usually the
vertical axis).
 Using a bar of fixed width drawn above each class
label, we extend the height appropriately.
 The bars are separated to emphasize the fact that each
class is a separate category.

Slide
12
 Bar Chart

10 Marada Inn Quality Ratings

9
8
7
Frequency

6
5
4
3
2
1
Rating
Poor Below Average Above Excellent
Average Average

Slide
13
 Pie Chart

 The pie chart is a commonly used graphical display

for presenting relative frequency and percent
frequency distributions for categorical data.
 First draw a circle; then use the relative frequencie
to subdivide the circle into sectors that correspond
the relative frequency for each class.
 Since there are 360 degrees in a circle, a class with
relative frequency of .25 would consume .25(360) =
degrees of the circle.

Slide
14
 Pie Chart

Marada Inn Quality

Excellent Ratings
5%
Poor
10%
Below
Average
Above 15%
Average
45%
Average
25%

Slide
15
 Example: Marada Inn

 Insights Gained from the Preceding Pie Chart

• One-half of the customers surveyed gave Marada
a quality rating of “above average” or “excellen
(looking at the left side of the pie). This might
please the manager.
• For each customer who gave an “excellent” ratin
there were two customers who gave a “poor”
rating (looking at the top of the pie). This should
displease the manager.

Slide
16
Frequency Distribution for Numerical Data

Slide
17
 Frequency Distribution

 Example: Hudson Auto Repair

The manager of Hudson Auto would like to
gain a
better understanding of the cost of parts used in
the
engine tune-ups performed in the shop. She
examines
50 customer invoices for tune-ups. The costs of
parts,
rounded to the nearest dollar, are listed on the
next
slide.
Slide
18
 Frequency Distribution

 Example: Hudson Auto Repair

Sample of Parts Cost($) for 50 Tune-
ups 93 57 75 52 99 80 97 62
91 78
71 69 72 89 66 75 79 75 72 76
104 74 62 68 97 105 77 65 80 109
85 97 88 68 83 68 71 69 67 74
62 82 98 101 79 105 79 69 62 73

Slide
19
 Frequency Distribution

The three steps necessary to define the classes for a

frequency distribution with quantitative data are:
1. Determine the number of non-overlapping classe
2. Determine the width of each class.
3. Determine the class limits.

Slide
20
 Frequency Distribution

 Guidelines for Determining the Number of

• Use between 5 and 20 classes.
Classes
• Data sets with a larger number of elements
usually require a larger number of classes.
• Smaller data sets usually require fewer classes.

The goal is to use enough classes to show the

variation in the data, but not so many classes
that some contain only a few data items.

Slide
21
 Frequency Distribution

 Guidelines for Determining the Width of Each

• Class
Use classes of equal width.
• Approximate Class Width =
Largest Data Value  Smallest Data Value
Number of Classes

Making the classes the same

width reduces the chance of
inappropriate interpretations.

Slide
22
 Frequency Distribution

 Note on Number of Classes and Class Width

• In practice, the number of classes and the
appropriate class width are determined by trial
and error.
• Once a possible number of classes is chosen, the
appropriate class width is found.
• The process can be repeated for a different
number of classes.
• Ultimately, the analyst uses judgment to
determine the combination of the number of
classes and class width that provides the best
frequency distribution for summarizing the data.

Slide
23
 Frequency Distribution

 Guidelines for Determining the Class Limits

• Class limits must be chosen so that each data
item belongs to one and only one class.
• The lower class limit identifies the smallest
possible data value assigned to the class.
• The upper class limit identifies the largest
possible data value assigned to the class.
• The appropriate values for the class limits
depend on the level of accuracy of the data.

An open-end class requires only a

lower class limit or an upper class limit.

Slide
24
 Frequency Distribution

 Example: Hudson Auto Repair

If we choose six classes:
Approximate Class Width = (109 - 52)/6 = 9.5   1
Parts Cost ($) Frequency
50-59 2
60-69 13
70-79 16
80-89 7
90-99 7
100-109 5
Total 50

Slide
25
 Relative Frequency and
Percent Frequency Distributions
 Example: Hudson Auto Repair

Parts Relative Percent

Cost ($) Frequency Frequency
50-59 .04 4
60-69 .26 2/50 26 .04(10
70-79 .32 32 0)
80-89 .14 14 Percent
frequency is
90-99 .14 14 the relative
100-109 .10 10 frequency
Total 1.00 100 multiplied
by 100.

Slide
26
 Relative Frequency and
Percent Frequency Distributions
 Example: Hudson Auto Repair
Insights Gained from the % Frequency
• Distribution:
Only 4% of the parts costs are in the $50-59 class
• 30% of the parts costs are under $70.
• The greatest percentage (32% or almost one-third
of the parts costs are in the $70-79 class.
• 10% of the parts costs are $100 or more.

Slide
27
 Summarizing Numerical Data

Dot Plot, Histogram, Cumulative

Distributions, Steam-and-Leaf Displays

Slide
28
 Dot Plot

 One of the simplest graphical summaries of

data is a dot plot.
 A horizontal axis shows the range of data
 values.
Then each data value is represented by a dot
placed above the axis.

Slide
29
 Dot Plot

 Example: Hudson Auto Repair

Tune-up Parts Cost

50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Cost ($)

Slide
30
 Histogram

 Another common graphical display of quantitative

data is a histogram.
 The variable of interest is placed on the horizontal
axis.
 A rectangle is drawn above each class interval with
its height corresponding to the interval’s frequency
relative frequency, or percent frequency.
 Unlike a bar graph, a histogram has no natural
separation between rectangles of adjacent classes.

Slide
31
 Histogram

 Example: Hudson Auto Repair

18
Tune-up Parts Cost
16
14
Frequency

12
10
8
6
4
2
Parts
Cost ($)
50-59 60-69 70-79 80-89 90-99 100-110

Slide
32
 Histograms Showing Skewness

 Symmetric
• Left tail is the mirror image of the right tail
• Examples: Heights of People

.35
Relative Frequency

.30
.25
.20
.15
.10
.05
0

Slide
33
 Histograms Showing Skewness

 Moderately Skewed Left

• A longer tail to the left
• Example: Exam
Scores
.35
Relative Frequency

.30
.25
.20
.15
.10
.05
0

Slide
34
 Histograms Showing Skewness

 Moderately Right Skewed

• A Longer tail to the right
• Example: Housing
Values
.35
Relative Frequency

.30
.25
.20
.15
.10
.05
0

Slide
35
 Histograms Showing Skewness

 Highly Skewed Right

• A very long tail to the right
• Example: Executive Salaries

.35
Relative Frequency

.30
.25
.20
.15
.10
.05
0

Slide
36
 Cumulative Distributions

Cumulative frequency distribution - shows the

number of items with values less than or equal to the
upper limit of each class..

Cumulative relative frequency distribution – shows

the proportion of items with values less than or
equal to the upper limit of each class.

Cumulative percent frequency distribution – shows

the percentage of items with values less than or
equal to the upper limit of each class.

Slide
37
 Cumulative Distributions

 The last entry in a cumulative frequency distribution

always equals the total number of observations.
 The last entry in a cumulative relative frequency
distribution always equals 1.00.
 The last entry in a cumulative percent frequency
distribution always equals 100.

Slide
38
 Cumulative Distributions

 Hudson Auto Repair

Parts Cost ($) Frequency

50-59 2
60-69 13
70-79 16
80-89 7
90-99 7
100-109 5
Total 50

Slide
39
 Cumulative Distributions

 Hudson Auto Repair

Cumulative Cumulative
Cumulative Relative Percent
Cost ($) Frequency Frequency Frequency
< 59 2 .04 4
< 69 15 .30 30
< 79 31 2+ .62 15/50 62 .30(100
< 89 38 13 .76 )
76
< 99 45 .90 90
< 109 50 1.00 100

Slide
40
 Stem-and-Leaf Display

 A stem-and-leaf display shows both the rank order

and shape of the distribution of the data.
 It is similar to a histogram on its side, but it has the
advantage of showing the actual data values.
 The first digits of each data item are arranged to th
left of a vertical line.
 To the right of the vertical line we record the last
digit for each item in rank order.
 Each line in the display is referred to as a stem.
 Each digit on a stem is a leaf.

Slide
41
 Example: Hudson Auto Repair

The manager of Hudson Auto would like to

gain a
better understanding of the cost of parts used in
the
engine tune-ups performed in the shop. She
examines
50 customer invoices for tune-ups. The costs of
parts,
rounded to the nearest dollar, are listed on the
next
slide.

Slide
42
 Stem-and-Leaf Display

 Example: Hudson Auto Repair

Sample of Parts Cost ($) for 50 Tune-

ups93 57 75 52 99 80 97 62
91 78
71 69 72 89 66 75 79 75 72 76
104 74 62 68 97 105 77 65 80 109
85 97 88 68 83 68 71 69 67 74
62 82 98 101 79 105 79 69 62 73

Slide
43
 Stem-and-Leaf Display

 Example: Hudson Auto Repair

5 2 7
6 2 2 2 2 5 6 7 8 8 8 9 9 9
17 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5 5 6 7 8 9 9 9
8 0 0 2 3 5 8 9
9 1 3 7 7 7 8 9
10 1 4 5 5 9

a stem
a leaf

Slide
44
 Stretched Stem-and-Leaf Display

 If we believe the original stem-and-leaf display has

condensed the data too much, we can stretch the
display vertically by using two stems for each
leading digit(s).
 Whenever a stem value is stated twice, the first va
corresponds to leaf values of 0 - 4, and the second
value corresponds to leaf values of 5 - 9.

Slide
45
 Stretched Stem-and-Leaf Display

 Example: Hudson Auto Repair

5 2
5 7
6 2 2 2 2
6 5 6 7 8 8 8 9 9 9
7 1 1 2 2 3 4 4
7 5 5 5 6 7 8 9 9 9
8 0 0 2 3
8 5 8 9
9 1 3
9 7 7 7 8 9
10 1 4
10 5 5 9
Slide
46
 Stem-and-Leaf Display

 Leaf Units
• A single digit is used to define each leaf.
• In the preceding example, the leaf unit was 1.
• Leaf units may be 100, 10, 1, 0.1, and so on.
• Where the leaf unit is not shown, it is assumed
to equal 1.
• The leaf unit indicates how to multiply the stem-
and-leaf numbers in order to approximate the
original data.

Slide
47
 Example: Leaf Unit = 0.1

If we have data with values such as

8.6 11.7 9.4 9.1 10.2 11.0 8.8

a stem-and-leaf display of these data will be

Leaf Unit = 0.1

8 6 8
9 1 4
10 2
11 0 7

Slide
48
 Example: Leaf Unit = 10

If we have data with values such as

1806 1717 1974 1791 1682 1910 1838

a stem-and-leaf display of these data will be

Leaf Unit = 10
16 8 The 82 in 1682
17 1 9 is rounded down
18 0 3 to 80 and is
represented as an
19 1 7 8.

Slide
49
Summarizing Data for Two Variables
Using Graphical Displays

Scatter Diagram, Side-by-Side and

Stacked Bar Charts

Slide
50
 Scatter Diagram and Trendline

 A scatter diagram is a graphical presentation of the

relationship between two quantitative variables.
 One variable is shown on the horizontal axis and
the other variable is shown on the vertical axis.
 The general pattern of the plotted points suggests
the overall relationship between the variables.
 A trendline provides an approximation of the
relationship.

Slide
51
 Scatter Diagram

 A Positive Relationship

Slide
52
 Scatter Diagram

 A Negative Relationship

Slide
53
 Scatter Diagram

 No Apparent Relationship

Slide
54
 Scatter Diagram

 Example: Panthers Football Team

The Panthers football team is interested in
investigating the relationship, if any, between
interceptions made and points scored.

x = Number of y = Number of
Interceptions Points Scored
1 14
3 24
2 18
1 17
3 30

Slide
55
 Scatter Diagram and Trendline

y
Number of Points Scored 35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0 x
0 1 2 3 4
Number of Interceptions

Slide
56
 Example: Panthers Football Team

 Insights Gained from the Preceding Scatter

•Diagram
The scatter diagram indicates a positive relations
between the number of interceptions and the
number of points scored.
• Higher points scored are associated with a higher
number of interceptions.
• The relationship is not perfect; all plotted points in
the scatter diagram are not on a straight line.

Slide
57
 Side-by-Side Bar Chart

 A side-by-side bar chart is a graphical display for

depicting multiple bar charts on the same display.
 Each cluster of bars represents one value of the
first variable.
 Each bar within a cluster represents one value of
the second variable.

Slide
58
 Side-by-Side Bar Chart
Finger Lake Homes
20
18
16
Frequency

14
12 < $200,000
> $200,000
10
8
6
4
2
Home Style
Colonial Log Split-Level A-Frame

Slide
59
 Stacked Bar Chart

 A stacked bar chart is another way to display and

compare two variables on the same display.
 It is a bar chart in which each bar is broken into
rectangular segments of a different color.
 If percentage frequencies are displayed, all bars
will be of the same height (or length), extending to
the 100% mark.

Slide
60
 Stacked Bar Chart
Finger Lake Homes
40
36
32
Frequency

28
24 < $200,000
> $200,000
20
16
12
8
4
Home Style
Colonial Log Split A-Frame

Slide
61