RESEARCH PROBLEM

FORMULATION
What is Research ?

● Search for knowledge

● A scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic.
In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation.
● “A careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts in any
branch of knowledge.” - The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary
● “Systematized effort to gain new knowledge.”
● Research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis
or suggested solutions; collecting, organising and evaluating data; making
deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the
conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.
Motivation in Research
Curiosity and Intellectual Stimulation: Many researchers are naturally curious and
have a strong desire to explore the unknown. The thrill of discovering new information
and gaining a deeper understanding of a subject can be highly motivating.
Contributing to Knowledge: Research allows individuals to contribute to the existing
body of knowledge in their field. Making a meaningful contribution to science,
technology, or a specific discipline can be personally fulfilling and provide a sense of
accomplishment.
Problem-Solving: Researchers often feel motivated to address real-world problems or
challenges. They seek to find solutions that can improve people's lives, advance
industries, or enhance our understanding of complex issues.
Personal and Professional Growth: Engaging in research can lead to personal and
professional growth. It offers opportunities to develop critical thinking, analytical skills,
creativity, and adaptability – qualities that are valuable in various contexts.
Motivation in Research
Desire for Innovation: Research frequently drives innovation by pushing the
boundaries of what is currently known. Researchers who are passionate about creating
new technologies, products, or methodologies are often motivated by the potential to
bring about positive change.
Recognition and Reputation: Successful research can lead to recognition within the
academic and professional communities. Esteem from peers, awards, citations, and a
strong reputation can motivate researchers to strive for excellence.

Passion for a Subject: Individuals who have a deep passion for a particular subject or
field are often drawn to research within that area. Their enthusiasm fuels their dedication
to advancing knowledge in that domain.

Academic and Career Goals: For academics and professionals, conducting research is
often a necessary component for achieving certain career milestones, such as obtaining
advanced degrees, securing tenure, or advancing in specific industries.
Motivation in Research

Financial Support: Research grants, scholarships, and funding opportunities can

provide financial incentives for individuals to pursue research projects that align with
their interests and goals.

Contributing to Society: Many researchers are motivated by a sense of duty to

contribute positively to society. They believe that their work can lead to advancements
that benefit communities, the environment, healthcare, and more.

Collaboration and Networking: Research often involves collaboration with

colleagues, both within and outside one's field. The opportunity to work with experts
and build a network of like-minded individuals can be motivating.

Legacy and Impact: Some researchers are driven by the desire to leave a lasting
impact on their field, even beyond their own lifetime. They strive to create a legacy by
making groundbreaking discoveries or establishing new theories.
Objectives of Research

● The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which
has not been discovered as yet.
● To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it
(exploratory or formulative research)
● To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or
a group (descriptive research)
● To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else (diagnostic research)
● To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (hypothesis-
testing research)
Exploratory Research
● Exploratory research is conducted when the researcher aims to gain a better
understanding of a problem, situation, or concept that is not well-defined or
understood.
● It's often used as a preliminary step before more focused research is
conducted.
● The primary goal of exploratory research is to explore and gather insights into
the topic, identify potential variables, generate hypotheses, and uncover
possible research questions.
● Exploratory research methods can include literature reviews, interviews, focus
groups, observations, and even preliminary surveys.
● The findings from Exploratory Research help researchers refine their research
questions, develop hypotheses and design more targeted research studies.
● This type of research is especially useful when there’s limited existing
knowledge about the topic.
Formative Research

● Formative research, on the other hand, is conducted during the early stages
of a project or program development.
● Formative research helps in identifying potential barriers, understanding
audience preferences, and refining strategies to achieve desired outcomes.
● Formative research methods often involve surveys, interviews, focus groups,
and observational studies.
● The data collected during formative research informs the creation of
materials, messages, and approaches that are more likely to resonate with
the intended audience.
Difference between exploratory and formative research

In their objectives and timing within the research process.

Exploratory research aims to uncover insights and generate hypotheses in the

early stages of understanding a topic,

while formative research aims to shape the design and strategies of interventions
or projects before they are fully implemented.

Both types of research are valuable tools for gaining a deeper understanding of
complex issues and for creating effective solutions or research designs.
Descriptive Research

● Descriptive research is a research method used to describe and document

the characteristics, behaviors, and phenomena of a specific population or
subject.
● Descriptive research is primarily concerned with providing a detailed snapshot
or summary of the current state of affairs.
● Descriptive research methods often involve the use of surveys, observations,
content analysis, and existing data analysis.
● Descriptive research is important for providing a baseline understanding of a
topic or phenomenon, which can serve as a foundation for further research or
decision-making.
Descriptive Research

Here are a few common examples of descriptive research:

● Census Surveys: A complete survey of an entire population to gather data on

various characteristics.
● Cross-sectional Surveys: Collecting data from a sample of a population at a
single point in time to describe their characteristics and behaviors.
● Longitudinal Studies: Collecting data from the same individuals or groups over
an extended period to observe changes and trends over time.
● Case Studies: In-depth examination of a single case or a small number of
cases to provide a rich description of a phenomenon.
● Content Analysis: Analyzing and categorizing the content of texts, images, or
other media to describe patterns and themes.
Diagnostic Research

● Diagnostic research, also known as diagnostic analysis, is a type of research

that aims to identify and understand the underlying causes, factors, or
variables that contribute to a particular problem, situation, or outcome.

● This type of research is focused on answering the “why” and “how” questions
behind a phenomenon.

● Diagnostic research goes beyond descriptive research by delving into the

reasons and mechanisms that explain observed patterns or behaviors.
Diagnostic Research
The main objectives of diagnostic research include:
● Identifying Causes: Diagnostic research seeks to uncover the root causes or
factors that are responsible for a particular issue or outcome. It aims to determine
why a certain phenomenon occurs in the first place.
● Understanding Relationships: This type of research aims to understand the
relationships and interactions between different variables that contribute to the
observed outcomes. It explores how various factors are interconnected.
● Providing Insights for Intervention: Diagnostic research helps in designing
effective interventions or strategies by pinpointing the specific areas that need
attention. It guides the development of solutions that target the underlying causes.
● Validating Hypotheses: Researchers often use diagnostic research to test
hypotheses generated during exploratory research. By identifying the factors that
drive a phenomenon, researchers can validate or refine their initial hypotheses.
It is commonly used in fields like healthcare, social sciences, business management, and
engineering to uncover the factors influencing outcomes and to develop effective
strategies for improvement.
Hypothesis Testing Research

● This type of research involves designing experiments or studies to gather

data and then using statistical analysis to determine whether the collected
evidence supports or contradicts the stated hypotheses.

● Hypothesis testing research is widely used in various scientific disciplines,

including natural sciences, social sciences and business.

● It provides a structured approach to making informed conclusions based on

data and evidence.
Types of Research

Descriptive vs. Analytical Research:

● Descriptive research aims to describe the current state of affairs without

manipulating variables.
● Analytical research involves using existing information to critically evaluate and
analyze the subject.

Applied vs. Fundamental Research:

● Applied research addresses immediate practical problems faced by society or

organizations.
● Fundamental research aims at generalizations and theory formulation, seeking
broader applications.
Types of Research

Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research:

● Quantitative research measures quantity and applies to phenomena expressible in

numerical terms.
● Qualitative research explores qualities and focuses on understanding motivations,
feelings, and behaviors.

Conceptual vs. Empirical Research:

● Conceptual research develops abstract ideas and theories, often pursued by

philosophers.
● Empirical research relies on observation and experience to draw conclusions, often
through experiments.
Other Types of Research:

● Time-based variations include one-time research (single period) and longitudinal

research (over multiple periods).
● Field-setting, laboratory, and simulation research methods are determined by the
research environment.
● Clinical or diagnostic research delves deeply into causality using small samples and
in-depth data.
● Exploratory research aims to develop hypotheses, while formalized research has
structured hypotheses for testing.
● Historical research uses historical sources to study events, ideas, and philosophies of
the past.
● Conclusion-oriented research allows flexibility in problem selection and design, while
decision-oriented research serves the needs of decision-makers.
● Operations research offers a quantitative basis for decision-making in executive
departments.
Research Process
1. Formulating the research problem

1. Formulating the research problem involves identifying the type of problem—

whether related to states of nature or relationships between variables.
2. The researcher selects a problem within a broad area of interest and
addresses any initial ambiguities. Feasibility is considered before establishing
a practical problem formulation. This process marks the first step in scientific
inquiry.
3. The formulation includes understanding the problem deeply and rephrasing it
in analytical terms.
1. Formulating the research problem

4. Expert input and discussions with colleagues help refine the problem's scope. In
academic settings, guides propose general problems, and researchers narrow
them down to operational terms. In business or governmental contexts,
administrative agencies often earmark problems, allowing discussions on their
origins and solutions.
5. The formulation's significance lies in defining the problem unambiguously,
distinguishing relevant from irrelevant data. Objectivity and validity in background
facts are crucial. The statement of objectives shapes data collection, relevant
data characteristics, relationships exploration, technique choice, and the final
report structure.
6. Pertinent terms should be clearly defined, and the process often follows a
sequence of refining formulations, progressing from broad to specific, based on
available resources.
2. Extensive literature survey
Problem Synopsis and Approval:

● After formulating the research problem, a brief summary of it is written down.

● Researchers aiming for a Ph.D. degree need to submit a synopsis of their topic to
the relevant committee or research board for approval.

Extensive Literature Survey:

● Extensive literature survey is a crucial step at this stage.

● The goal is to gather comprehensive knowledge related to the research problem.

Sources for Literature Review:

● Abstracting and indexing journals are initial sources for literature review.
● Published or unpublished bibliographies provide valuable references.
● Academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports, and books should
be consulted based on the problem's nature.
2. Extensive literature survey

Building on Existing Knowledge:

● Following sources often leads to discovering additional relevant sources.

● Earlier studies similar to the current research should be carefully
examined.

Utilizing a Library:

● Having access to a good library is highly beneficial during this stage.

● Libraries provide a wealth of resources to aid in the literature survey
process.
3. Development of working hypotheses

● A working hypothesis is a tentative assumption made in order to draw out and

test its logical or empirical consequences.
● The development of working hypotheses is an important step in the research
process, as it provides the focal point for research and affects the manner in
which tests must be conducted and the quality of data which is required for the
analysis.
● Working hypotheses should be specific and limited to the piece of research in
hand, and should be stated in precise and clearly defined terms.
3. Development of working hypotheses

● There are four main approaches to developing working hypotheses: discussions

with colleagues and experts, examination of data and records, review of similar
studies, and exploratory personal investigation.
● Working hypotheses are more useful when they are developed as a result of a-
priori thinking about the subject, examination of the available data and material,
and the counsel of experts and interested parties.
● Working hypotheses should also be testable and relevant to the research
question.
● They should be stated in a neutral way, so as not to bias the researcher's
interpretation of the data.
4. Preparing the research design

● A research design is a framework or blueprint for conducting a research study.

It specifies the methods and procedures that will be used to collect and
analyze data.
● The purpose of a research design is to ensure that the study is conducted in a
systematic and efficient way, and that the results are reliable and valid.
● There are many different types of research designs, each with its own
strengths and weaknesses. The researcher must select the most appropriate
design for their particular study.
4. Preparing the research design

● The following factors should be considered when selecting a research design:

○ The research question
○ The population or sample
○ The variables of interest
○ The level of measurement
○ The time and resources available
● The research design should be written in a clear and concise way, and flexible as
well.
● The researcher should be aware of the ethical implications of their research design.
● The research design should be evaluated before the study is conducted to ensure
5. Determining sample design
● Sampling is the process of selecting a subset of a population of interest.
● There are two main types of sampling: probability sampling and non-probability sampling.
● Probability sampling is a method of sampling in which each member of the population has
an equal chance of being selected.
● Non-probability sampling is a method of sampling in which not all members of the
population have an equal chance of being selected.
● There are many different types of probability sampling, including simple random sampling,
systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster sampling, and multi-stage sampling.
● There are also many different types of non-probability sampling, including convenience
sampling, judgment sampling, quota sampling, and snowball sampling.
● The best type of sampling to use depends on the specific research question and the
Different types of Sampling

● Simple random sampling: This is the simplest type of probability sampling. Each
member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.
● Systematic sampling: This is a type of probability sampling in which every kth
member of the population is selected.
● Stratified sampling: This is a type of probability sampling in which the population
is divided into strata (subgroups) and then random samples are selected from each
stratum.
● Cluster sampling: This is a type of probability sampling in which groups of
individuals (clusters) are randomly selected and then all members of the selected
clusters are included in the sample.
Different types of Sampling
● Multi-stage sampling: This is a type of probability sampling that is used when the population is
very large or spread out. It involves multiple stages of sampling, with smaller and smaller
groups being selected at each stage.
● Convenience sampling: This is a type of non-probability sampling in which the researcher
selects individuals who are convenient to sample.
● Judgment sampling: This is a type of non-probability sampling in which the researcher selects
individuals who they believe are representative of the population.
● Quota sampling: This is a type of non-probability sampling in which the researcher sets quotas
for different subgroups of the population and then selects individuals to fill those quotas.
● Snowball sampling: This is a type of non-probability sampling in which the researcher starts
with a small group of individuals and then asks them to refer other individuals who meet the
study criteria
6. Collecting the data

● Data collection is the process of gathering information about a particular

topic.
● There are two main types of data collection: primary data and secondary
data.
● Primary data is collected by the researcher directly from the source.
● Secondary data is collected from existing sources, such as books, journals,
and government reports.
6. Collecting the data

Methods of collecting primary data through surveys:

● Observation: This method involves the researcher observing the behavior of
people or things without interacting with them.
● Personal interview: This method involves the researcher asking questions to
the respondents in person.
● Telephone interview: This method involves the researcher asking questions
to the respondents over the phone.
● Mailed questionnaire: This method involves sending questionnaires to the
respondents and asking them to fill them out and return them.
● Schedule: This method involves sending enumerators to the respondents to
collect data by filling out a schedule.
7. Execution of the project

● Execution of the project is the process of carrying out the research plan. It is
important to execute the project in a systematic and timely manner to ensure
that the data collected is accurate and reliable.
● If the survey is to be conducted by means of structured questionnaires, the
questions and possible answers should be coded so that the data can be
easily processed.
● If the data are to be collected through interviewers, the interviewers should be
properly selected and trained. The researcher should also make occasional
field checks to ensure that the interviewers are doing their job properly.
● The researcher should carefully monitor the survey to identify and address
any unanticipated factors that could affect the accuracy of the data.
7. Execution of the project

● If some respondents do not cooperate, the researcher should develop a plan

to deal with the non-response problem. One common approach is to make a
list of the non-respondents and then take a small sub-sample of them to try to
secure their cooperation.
● The researcher should make sure that the project is executed in accordance
with the research plan and ethical guidelines.
● The researcher should be flexible and adaptable to changes that may occur
during the course of the project.
● The researcher should be prepared to deal with unexpected challenges and
problems.
8. Analysis of data
● Data analysis is the process of making sense of the data that has been collected.
It is a complex and challenging process that requires the researcher to use a
variety of statistical techniques.
● The first step in data analysis is to organize the data into a format that is easy to
understand and analyze. This may involve coding the data, which is the process
of assigning a number or symbol to each category of data.
● Once the data is organized, the researcher can begin to analyze it. This may
involve using descriptive statistics, which are used to describe the data, or
inferential statistics, which are used to make inferences about the population from
which the data was collected.
● Inferential statistics are often used to test hypotheses. A hypothesis is a
statement about the relationship between two or more variables. For example, a
hypothesis might be that there is a difference in the average weekly wages of
workers in different parts of the city.
8. Analysis of data
● To test a hypothesis, the researcher uses a statistical test. A statistical test is
a procedure that uses the data to determine whether the hypothesis is
supported or not.
● The results of the data analysis are used to draw conclusions about the
research question. The conclusions should be based on the data and should
be supported by the statistical evidence.
● The choice of statistical techniques used in data analysis will depend on the
research question, the type of data collected, and the resources available to
the researcher.
● The researcher should be familiar with the assumptions of the statistical tests
that they are using.
● The researcher should interpret the results of the data analysis carefully and
avoid making any unwarranted conclusions.
9. Hypothesis-testing

● Hypothesis testing is the process of using statistical tests to determine whether

the data support a hypothesis.
● A hypothesis is a statement about the relationship between two or more
variables.
● There are many different statistical tests that can be used to test hypotheses.
The choice of test will depend on the type of data collected and the research
question being asked.
● The results of a hypothesis test can either support the hypothesis or not support
the hypothesis.
● If the results of the test do not support the hypothesis, the researcher may need
to revise the hypothesis or conduct further research.
9. Hypothesis-testing

● Hypothesis testing is an important part of the research process. It allows

researchers to determine whether their findings are supported by the data or
not.
● Hypothesis testing can be a complex process, but there are many resources
available to help researchers learn how to do it.
● It is important to note that hypothesis testing is not the only way to draw
conclusions from research. Researchers may also use other methods, such
as qualitative analysis, to draw conclusions.
10. Generalisations and interpretation

● Generalizations are statements that apply to a larger population based on the

findings of a study.
● Interpretation is the process of explaining the findings of a study in light of
existing knowledge.
● If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the
researcher to arrive at a generalization. This means that the findings of the
study can be applied to a larger population.
● If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, they may seek to explain
their findings on the basis of some theory. This is known as interpretation.
10. Generalisations and interpretation

● The process of interpretation can often lead to new questions, which can then
be the basis for further research.
● It is important to note that generalizations should be made with caution. The
findings of a study may not be applicable to all members of the population.
● The interpretation of the findings of a study should be based on sound
reasoning and evidence.
● The researcher should be aware of the limitations of their study and should
not make any claims that go beyond the data.
11. Preparation of the report or the thesis
● The preparation of the report or thesis is the final step in the research process. It is
important to write the report carefully and concisely, avoiding vague expressions.
● The report should be structured in a logical way, with an introduction, a summary of
findings, the main report, and a conclusion.
● The report should be written in simple language, avoiding jargon.
● Charts and illustrations can be used to present information more clearly and forcibly.
● The report should also include a bibliography of the sources that were consulted.
● The report should be written in a concise and objective style. This means that the
researcher should avoid using personal opinions or beliefs in the report.
● The report should be written in simple language that is easy to understand. This means
avoiding jargon and technical terms.
● Charts and illustrations can be used to present information more clearly and forcibly.
However, they should only be used if they add value to the report.
● The report should include a bibliography of the sources that were consulted. This allows
the reader to verify the information in the report.
Approaches to Research

There are three main approaches to research: quantitative, qualitative, and mixed
methods.

Quantitative research

● Uses numbers to collect and analyze data.

● Often uses surveys, experiments, and statistical analysis.
● Can be used to test hypotheses and make predictions.
● Can be generalizable to a larger population.
● Can be objective and impartial.
● Can be limited in its ability to capture people's experiences and understandings.
Approaches to Research
Qualitative research

● Uses non-numerical data, such as text, images, and sounds.

● Often uses interviews, focus groups, and participant observation.
● Can be used to explore people's experiences and understandings.
● Can be used to understand complex problems.
● Can be subjective and biased.
● Can be difficult to generalize findings.

Mixed methods research

● Combines quantitative and qualitative data.

● Can be used to gain a more comprehensive understanding of a research problem.
● Can be more complex and time-consuming than other approaches.
● Can be difficult to integrate the two types of data.
 Approach Data Focus Strengths Weaknesses

Quantitative Numerical Facts and objective reality Can be used to test hypotheses and make Can be reductionist, can
predictions, and can be generalizable to a larger oversimplify complex problems
population

Qualitative Non-numerical People's experiences and Can provide rich insights into people's lives and Can be subjective, can be
understandings experiences, and can be used to explore difficult to generalize findings
complex problems

Mixed Both numerical Can combine the strengths of Can provide a more comprehensive Can be more complex and time-
methods and non-numerical quantitative and qualitative understanding of a research problem consuming than other
research approaches
Literature Review
What is Literature Review ?
A literature review is a critical analysis of previously published research on a
particular topic. It is an essential part of the research process, as it helps the
researcher to:

● Understand the existing knowledge on the topic

● Identify gaps in the knowledge
● Develop a research question
● Formulate a research hypothesis
● Design a research study
● Interpret the results of the research study
● Write the research report

The literature review should be structured in a logical way, and it should be written in
a clear and concise style. It should be objective and unbiased, and it should avoid
making any personal opinions or beliefs.
Key elements of a literature review
● Introduction: The introduction should provide a brief overview of the topic and
the purpose of the literature review.
● Literature search: The literature search should identify all of the relevant
research that has been published on the topic.
● Review of the literature: The review of the literature should critically analyze
the research that has been identified. This includes evaluating the quality of the
research, identifying the strengths and weaknesses of the research, and
summarizing the findings of the research.
● Discussion: The discussion should discuss the implications of the literature
review for the researcher's own research. This includes identifying the gaps in
the knowledge, developing a research question, and formulating a research
hypothesis.

The literature review is an important part of the research process, and it is essential
for conducting high-quality research.
Information Sources

● Academic journals: Academic journals are the most reliable source of

information for a literature review. They are peer-reviewed, which means that the
articles have been reviewed by other experts in the field before being published.
This ensures that the information is accurate and up-to-date.
● Books: Books can be a good source of information for a literature review, but
they are not as reliable as academic journals. Books are not peer-reviewed, so
the information may not be accurate or up-to-date.
● Government reports: Government reports can be a good source of information
on a variety of topics. They are often written by experts and are based on
research data. However, it is important to be aware that government reports may
be biased or have a political agenda.
● Websites: There are many websites that provide information on a variety of
topics. However, it is important to be selective about the websites that you use.
Only use websites that are from reputable sources.
Information Sources

● Conference proceedings: Conference proceedings are a good source of

information on the latest research in a particular field. They often contain
papers that have not yet been published in journals.
● Theses and dissertations: Theses and dissertations can be a good source
of information on a particular topic. They are written by students who have
conducted research on the topic. However, it is important to be aware that
theses and dissertations may not be as polished or well-written as journal
articles.
● Experts: If you are unable to find the information you need in the above
sources, you can contact experts in the field. They may be able to provide you
with information or direct you to other sources
Information Sources
Factors to be considered :
● The quality of the source: The source should be from a reputable publisher and
written by experts in the field.
● The relevance of the source: The source should be relevant to your research topic.
● The currency of the source: The source should be up-to-date.
● The accessibility of the source: The source should be easy to obtain and read.

Additional tips for finding information sources

● Use a variety of search engines and databases.
● Use keywords that are relevant to your research topic.
● Use advanced search features to narrow down your results.
● Read the abstracts of articles to see if they are relevant to your research topic.
● Read the full text of articles if they are relevant to your research topic.
● Take notes on the information that you find.
● Cite the sources that you use in your literature review.
Tools and methods for identifying literature
Library Catalogs: Traditional library catalogs provide access to books,
journals, theses, and other resources available in physical and electronic
formats within a particular library.
Online Databases: These databases index academic journals, conference
proceedings, reports, and more. Popular databases include:
● PubMed (for medical and life sciences)
● IEEE Xplore (for engineering and technology)
● JSTOR (for humanities, arts, and social sciences)
● PsycINFO (for psychology and related fields)
● Web of Science (for multidisciplinary research)
● Google Scholar: A freely accessible search engine that indexes scholarly
articles, theses, books, conference papers, and patents. It's especially useful
for a broader literature search.
Tools and methods for identifying literature
Academic Search Engines: These specialized search engines provide access to
academic content from various sources:
● Microsoft Academic
● BASE (Bielefeld Academic Search Engine)
● CORE (COnnecting REpositories)

Citation Indexing: Tools like Google Scholar and Web of Science allow you to trace
backward (cited by) and forward (citing) citations from a specific paper, helping you
find related and influential works.
Reference Lists: Review the reference lists of articles, books, and reports to
identify sources cited by the authors. This can lead to additional relevant literature.
Subject-Specific Repositories: Some fields have repositories that host preprints,
working papers, and other academic documents. Examples include arXiv (for
physics, mathematics, computer science) and SocArXiv (for social sciences).
Tools and methods for identifying literature

● ResearchGate and Academia.edu: Social networking platforms for

researchers that allow sharing publications, connecting with peers, and
accessing research papers.
Professional Organizations: Many professional organizations provide
access to journals, magazines, and research publications as part of their
membership benefits.
Alert Services: Set up alerts to receive notifications when new research
matching your criteria is published. Many databases offer this feature.
Review Articles: Review articles summarize and synthesize existing
literature on a specific topic, serving as a starting point for your own research.
Indexing and Abstracting Services

Indexing and abstracting services are tools or systems that help researchers
locate, access, and navigate the vast amount of information available in academic
literature. They play a crucial role in organizing and summarizing scholarly
publications, making it easier for researchers to find relevant articles, papers, and
research in their field of interest.

Indexing: Indexing involves creating a structured and searchable database of

academic literature. Indexing services compile metadata about each document,
such as the title, author, publication source, keywords, and often a brief summary
(abstract) of the content. This metadata enables researchers to search for specific
topics, authors, or keywords. Indexing services do not host the full content of the
documents; they provide information about where the documents can be found.
Indexing and Abstracting Services

Abstracting: Abstracting goes a step further by providing concise summaries

(abstracts) of the content of scholarly articles. These abstracts capture the main
points, objectives, methods, results, and conclusions of the papers. Abstracts give
researchers a quick overview of an article's content without needing to read the
entire paper. Abstracting services often accompany indexing services and
enhance the usability of the database.

Both indexing and abstracting services serve as essential tools for researchers,
helping them efficiently identify and access relevant literature for their studies.
They are commonly used in online academic databases and search engines,
making scholarly research more accessible and manageable.
Benefits of using indexing and abstracting services

● They can help you find relevant information quickly and easily.
● They can help you save time by eliminating the need to read through
irrelevant documents.
● They can help you stay up-to-date on the latest research in your field.
● They can help you identify gaps in the literature.
● They can help you find information that is not easily accessible, such as
patents and grey literature
Indexing Services
PubMed: Indexes biomedical literature, including articles from medical journals, life
sciences, and healthcare literature.
IEEE Xplore: Indexes articles, conference papers, and standards in the fields of
engineering, electronics, and computer science.
ERIC (Education Resources Information Center): Indexes education-related
literature, including journal articles, research reports, and conference papers.
sycINFOP: Indexes literature in psychology and related fields, including journals,
books, and dissertations.
Scopus: Multidisciplinary abstract and citation database covering a wide range of
subject areas.
Web of Science: Provides citation indexing for scholarly articles in various
disciplines.
MEDLINE: Focuses on medical literature, including clinical research, biochemistry,
and related fields.
Abstracting Services
ScienceDirect: Offers abstracts and full-text access to scientific articles from
various disciplines.
MathSciNet: Abstracts and reviews mathematical literature.
Social Science Research Network (SSRN): Provides abstracts and working
papers in the social sciences.
INSPEC: Covers abstracts and literature in physics, engineering, and
technology.
Anthropological Index Online: Abstracts and indexes anthropology-related
literature.
Business Source Complete: Abstracts and full-text access to business-related
literature.
PsycINFO: Alongside indexing, it also provides abstracts of psychology-related
articles.
Citation Indexes

● Citation indexes are specialized databases that track and catalog citations
found within scholarly articles, conference papers, books, and other
academic publications.
● These indexes provide information about which articles cite a particular
work and which works a particular article has cited.
● In essence, citation indexes create networks of citations, allowing
researchers to explore the relationships between different research papers
and authors.
Citation Indexes
Features :

Forward Citation Searching: This involves looking at which later publications have cited
a specific earlier work. It helps researchers understand the impact and influence of a
particular paper over time.
Backward Citation Searching: This involves examining the references cited within a
specific paper. Researchers can trace the sources that contributed to the development
of that paper.
Mapping Relationships: Citation indexes create visualizations that show the
connections and relationships between different papers, authors, and fields of study.
These visualizations help researchers identify key contributors and influential papers.
Impact Assessment: Researchers can gauge the impact of a particular article by seeing
how many times it has been cited by other researchers. This is often used to evaluate
the significance of academic contributions.
Identifying Trends and Emerging Topics: By analyzing patterns of citations,
researchers can identify trends, emerging topics, and areas of active research.
Citation Indexes Examples
Web of Science: Web of Science is a subscription-based service that provides citation data for
scholarly publications. It covers a wide range of disciplines and is one of the most
comprehensive citation indexes available.

Scopus: Scopus is another subscription-based service that provides citation data for scholarly
publications. It covers a wider range of disciplines than Web of Science and also includes
information on conference proceedings and patents.

EBSCOhost: EBSCOhost is a subscription-based service that provides citation data for

scholarly publications, as well as full-text articles for some publications. It covers a wide range
of disciplines and is a good option for researchers who need access to full-text articles.

Google Scholar: Google Scholar is a free service that provides citation data for scholarly
publications. It does not cover as many disciplines as Web of Science or Scopus, but it is a
good option for researchers who are looking for free access to information.

Dimensions: Dimensions is a free service that provides citation data for scholarly publications.
It is a good option for researchers who are looking for a free and comprehensive citation index.
Critical Review
A critical review, within the context of literature review, involves analyzing and evaluating
the quality, relevance, and significance of the existing academic literature related to a
specific research topic.

It goes beyond simply summarizing and describing the content of various sources;
instead, it involves a thoughtful assessment of the strengths, weaknesses, and
contributions of those sources to the research being conducted.

A critical review aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the current state of

knowledge in the field and to identify gaps or areas for further exploration.

A critical review in the literature review section of a research paper demonstrates your
ability to engage critically with existing research, assess the scholarly landscape, and
position your own research within that context.

It also helps establish the rationale for your research questions, hypotheses, and the
overall research design.
Key aspects of critical review
Evaluation of Source Credibility: Assess the credibility of the sources, considering
factors like the author's expertise, the reputation of the journal or publisher, and the
methodology used in the study.

Analysis of Research Methodology: Examine the research methods used in the

studies under review. Assess the appropriateness of the methods for addressing the
research questions and the rigor of the study design.

Identification of Key Themes and Findings: Identify common themes, trends, and
findings across the reviewed sources. This helps in synthesizing information and
understanding the broader context of the topic.

Comparison and Contrast: Compare and contrast different sources, noting areas of
agreement and disagreement. This can highlight areas where further research is
needed or where the field is divided.
Key aspects of critical review

Identification of Gaps: Identify gaps or limitations in the existing literature. These gaps
can point toward opportunities for new research questions or directions.

Assessment of Contribution: Evaluate how each source contributes to the

understanding of the research topic. Does the source offer a new perspective,
challenge existing theories, or provide valuable evidence?

Critical Reflection: Offer your own insights and reflections on the sources. Discuss how
the reviewed literature informs your research objectives and hypotheses.

Synthesis and Integration: Synthesize the information from various sources to create a
cohesive narrative that highlights the evolution of the topic and the current state of
knowledge.
Identifying research gaps
A research gap is an area where there is a lack of knowledge or understanding. It can be
identified by conducting a literature review, which is a systematic study of the research that
has been done on a particular topic.

How to identify gaps?

● Studies that have conflicting results: If different studies have found different results, this
could be an indication of a research gap.
● Studies that have been conducted on a small scale: If studies have been conducted on a
small scale, this could mean that the results are not generalizable to the wider population.
● Studies that are outdated: If studies are outdated, the findings may not be relevant to the
current state of knowledge.
● Studies that have not been replicated: If studies have not been replicated, this could
mean that the findings are not reliable.
● Studies that have not been published: Studies that have not been published may not
have been peer-reviewed, which means that they may not be of high quality.
Conceptualizing the research gap
Process of identifying and understanding the area of knowledge that is not well-understood or that
is in need of further research. This can be done by conducting a literature review, which is a
systematic study of the research that has been done on a particular topic.

Understand the Gap: Review the literature to thoroughly understand the research gap you've
identified. Clarify what specific aspect of knowledge is missing or underexplored.
Identify the Context: Determine the context and scope of the research gap. Consider whether
the gap is limited to a certain demographic, geographical area, time period, or industry.
Define the Scope: Clearly define the boundaries of your study. What are the specific variables,
concepts, or factors that your research will focus on in relation to the gap?
Explore the Implications: Reflect on the potential implications of addressing the research gap.
How might closing this gap contribute to theoretical understanding, practical applications, or
policy recommendations?
Consider Interdisciplinary Connections: Examine whether the research gap connects with
other disciplines. Interdisciplinary perspectives can enrich your study and provide unique
insights.
Review Theoretical Frameworks: If applicable, revisit the theoretical frameworks relevant to
the gap. Are there existing theories that can be extended or modified to address the gap?
Hypothesizing the research gap
Process of proposing a possible explanation for the research gap. This can be done by
identifying the factors that may be contributing to the gap and by proposing a way to address
these factors.

Formulate a Research Question: Transform the conceptualized research gap into a

specific research question. The question should be clear, focused, and directly related
to the gap.
Identify Variables: Determine the key variables or factors involved in the research
question. What are the elements that you will study or manipulate to investigate the
gap?
Generate Hypotheses: Develop one or more hypotheses that propose a potential
relationship or outcome in response to the research question. Hypotheses should be
specific and testable.
Consider Null and Alternative Hypotheses: For quantitative research, consider both null
(no effect) and alternative (expected effect) hypotheses. This allows for hypothesis
testing.
Hypothesizing the research gap

Ensure Feasibility: Ensure that your research question and hypotheses are
feasible within the constraints of time, resources, and available data.
Review Existing Evidence: Before finalizing hypotheses, review existing evidence
in the literature. Are there any studies that provide insights into potential
outcomes or relationships?
Seek Feedback: Share your research question and hypotheses with colleagues,
mentors, or advisors. Their input can help refine your formulation.
Alignment with Gap: Ensure that your research question and hypotheses directly
address the identified gap and contribute to filling that gap.

Conceptualization and hypothesis are important steps in the research process

because they help to focus the research and to identify the research question. By
understanding the research gap and proposing a hypothesis, the researcher can
develop a research design that will be most likely to answer the research question.