INE 302

Manufacturing Processes for Industrial Engineers

Lecture 5: Metal Casting- Fundamentals and

Processes
SOLIDIFICATION PROCESSES
 Starting work material is either a liquid or is in a highly plastic
condition, and a part is created through solidification of the
material

 Solidification processes can be classified according to

engineering material processed:
 Metals
 Ceramics, specifically glasses
 Polymers and polymer matrix composites (PMCs)

2
 Classification of solidification processes
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©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
CASTING OF METALS
 Process in which molten metal flows by gravity or other
force into a mold where it solidifies in the shape of the
mold cavity
 The term casting also applies to the part made in the
process
 Steps in casting seem simple:
1. Heat/melt the metal
2. Pour it into a mold
3. Solidification of the metal

4
 WHY CASTIN Transmission Housing

G?complex
 Casting can produce

shapes and with internal cavities

or hollow sections
 Very large parts can be produced
in one piece Polaroid Camera Case
Engine Block
 Casting can utilize materials that
Cast Iron Waffle Maker
are difficult or uneconomical to
process by other means
 The casting process is
competitive with other
manufacturing process
o Some casting
5
methods are suited
 Some casting processes are net to mass production
shape; others are near net shape
OPEN MOLDS AND CLOSED MOLDS

 Two forms of mold: (a) open mold and (b) closed mold for
more complex mold geometry with gating system leading into
the cavity

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
 Moreintricate geometries are possible with
expendable mold processes

 Partshapes in permanent mold processes are

limited by the need to open the mold

 Permanentmold processes are more economic in

high production operations

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 SOLIDIFICATION OF METALS

PURE METAL:
 Clearly defined melting / freezing point.
 Solidifies at a constant temperature.
 Temperature remains constant while latent
heat of fusion is given off.
 Casting is taken out and allowed to cool to
ambient temperature.
 Metals usually shrink during solidification
and while cooling to room temperature
due to thermal expansion characteristics. Continue 8
 SOLIDIFICATION OF METALS
(cont.)

PURE METAL (CONT.):

 Mold walls are much cooler than the
molten metal.
 Metal cools rapidly and produces a
solidified skin (shell of equiaxed grains).
 Grains grow in a direction opposite to that
of the heat transfer out through the mold.
 Columnar grains: favorable orientation
grow.
 Solidification front moves from the mold 9
wall in towards the center.
 SOLIDIFICATION OF METALS

ALLOY:
 Solidification happens between
TL and TS
 Width of mushy zone, described
by:
freezing range = TL – TS .
Short  500C
Long  1100C
 In pure metals approaches zero
freezing range

 Mushy or pasty state consisting of columnar dendrites.

• Micro-porosity (Inter-dendritic Shrinkage Voids)
• Segregation • Compositional Variations 10
 STRUCTURE PROPERTY RELATIONSHIP (cont.)

SEGREGATION:
 Ca changes as solidification takes place. Lower solvent
concentration
 Cu-Ni case: First a to solidify has Ca = 46 wt% Ni.
Higher
Last a to solidify has Ca = 35 wt% Ni. solvent
Fast rate of cooling: Slow rate of cooling: concentration
Cored structure Equilibrium structure
First ato solidify: Uniform C
46 wt% Ni a: 35 wt% Ni
Last ato solidify:
< 35 wt% Ni

Normal segregation: higher concentration of alloying elements driven

towards the center. 11

Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
 STRUCTURE PROPERTY RELATIONSHIP (cont.)

EFFECTS OF COOLING RATE:

 Slow cooling rates coarse dendritic structures with large
spacing between dendritic arms
 Higher cooling rates, structure becomes finer with
smaller dendritic arm spacing
 grain size decreases
 strength and ductility of cast alloy increase
 microporosity decreases
 tendency of casting to crack (hot tearing) decreases

 Even higher cooling rates, result in amorphous

structure, no grain boundaries, atoms are packed
randomly and tightly
12
 excellent corrosion resistance, good ductility, high strength

Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
 FLUID FLOW
 Basic gravity casting system:
 The molten metal is poured through a pouring basin or cup;
 it then flows through the gating system (sprue, runners and
gates) into the mold cavity.
 The sprue is a tapered vertical channel through which the
molten metal flows downward in the mold.
 Runners are the channels that carry the molten metal from
the sprue into the mold cavity or connect the sprue to the gate
(that portion of the runner through which the molten metal
enters the mold cavity).
 Risers (also called feeders) serve as reservoirs of molten
metal to supply any molten metal necessary to prevent
porosity due to shrinkage during solidification 13

Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
 FLUID FLOW AND SOLIDIFICATION
TIME
p v2
Bernoulli’s theorem h 
g

2g
 constant

Mass continuity Q  A1v1  A2v2



A1 h2

Sprue design A2 h1

vD
Reynolds number Re 
 
n
Chvorinov’s Rule  Volume 
Solidification time= C
Surface Area


14


Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
EXAMPLE

15
EXAMPLE

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HEAT TRANSFER
 Total solidification time TTS = time required for casting to solidify
after pouring
 TTS depends on size and shape of casting by relationship known as
Chvorinov's Rule n
  V
TTS Cm  
 A
where TTS = total solidification time, V = volume of the casting; A
= surface area of casting, n = exponent with typical value = 2, and
Cm is mold constant
 Thus, a large, solid sphere will solidify and cool to ambient
temperature at a much slower rate than will a smaller solid
sphere.
17
 Because of their thermal expansion characteristics, metals usually
shrink (contract) during solidification and while cooling to room
temperature.
MOLD CONSTANT IN CHVORINOV'S
RULE
 Mold constant Cm depends on:
 Mold material
 Thermal properties of casting metal
 Pouring temperature relative to melting point

 Value of Cm for a given casting operation can be based

on experimental data from previous operations carried
out using same mold material, metal, and pouring
temperature, even though the shape of the part may be
quite different

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DIRECTIONAL SOLIDIFICATION
 To minimize effects of shrinkage, it is desirable for
regions of the casting most distant from the liquid metal
supply to freeze first and for solidification to progress
from these regions toward the riser(s)
 Thus, molten metal is continually available from risers to
prevent shrinkage voids
 The term directional solidification describes this aspect of
freezing and methods by which it is controlled

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ACHIEVING DIRECTIONAL
SOLIDIFICATION
 Directional solidification is achieved using Chvorinov's
Rule to design the casting, its orientation in the mold,
and the riser system that feeds it
 Locate sections of the casting with lower V/A ratios away
from riser, so freezing occurs first in these regions, and the
liquid metal supply for the rest of the casting remains open
 Chills ‑ internal or external heat sinks that cause rapid
freezing in certain regions of the casting

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EXTERNAL CHILLS

 (a) External chill to encourage rapid freezing of the molten metal in

a thin section of the casting; and (b) the likely result if the external
chill were not used

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RISER DESIGN
 Riser is waste metal that is separated from the casting
and remelted to make more castings
 To minimize waste in the unit operation, it is desirable

for the volume of metal in the riser to be a minimum

 Since the shape of the riser is normally designed to

maximize the V/A ratio, this allows riser volume to be

reduced to the minimum possible value

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EXAMPLE
A cylindrical riser must be designed for a sand casting
mold. The casting itself is a steel rectangular plate with
dimensions 7.5 x 12.5 x 2.0 cm. Previous observations
have indicated that the total solidification time (TTS) for
this casting =1.6 min. The cylinder for the riser will have a
diameter-to-height ratio =1.0. Determine the dimensions of
the riser so that its TTS =2.0 min

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EXAMPLE

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DEFECTS
 Several defects can develop in castings.
 Metallic projections, consisting of fins, flash, or projections
such as swells and rough surfaces.
 Cavities, consisting of rounded or rough internal or exposed
cavities including blowholes, pinholes, and shrinkage cavities.
 Discontinuities, such as cracks, cold or hot tearing and cold
shut. If the solidifying metal is constraint from shrinking freely,
cracking and tearing may occur.
 Although several factors are involved in tearing, coarse grain
size and the presence of low melting-point segregates along the
grain boundaries (intergranular) increase the tendency for hot
tearing.
 Cold shut is an interface in a casting that lacks complete fusion
because of the meeting of two streams of liquid metal from
different gates. 25
 Defective surface, such as surface folds, laps, scars, adhering
sand layers, and oxide scale.
DEFECTS
 Several defects can develop in castings.
 Incomplete casting, such as misruns (due to premature
solidification) in sufficient volume of the metal poured, and
runout (due to loss of metal from mold after pouring).
 Incomplete castings also can result from the molten metal
being at too low a temperature or from pouring the metal too
slowly.
 Incorrect dimensions or shape, due to factors such as
improper shrinkage allowance, pattern-mounting error,
irregular contraction, deformed pattern, or warped casting.
 Inclusions, which from during melting, solidification, and
molding; generally nonmetallic.
 They are regarded as harmful because they act as stress raisers and,
thus reduce the strength of the casting.
26
 Porosity in a casting may be caused by shrinkage, or gases, or both.
 Microporosity also can develop when the liquid metal solidifies and
 HOT TEARS IN CASTINGS

Figure 10.12 Examples of hot tears in castings. These defects occur because the casting cannot shrink freely during cooling, owing 27
to constraints in various portions of the molds and cores. Exothermic (heat-producing) compounds may be used (as exothermic
padding) to control cooling at critical sections to avoid hot tearing

Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
 COMMON CASTING DEFECTS

Figure 10.13 Examples of common defects in castings. These defects can be minimized or eliminated by proper design
and preparation of molds and control of pouring procedures. Source: After J. Datsko.
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Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid. ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
TWO CATEGORIES OF
CASTING PROCESSES

1. Expendable mold processes - mold is sacrificed to remove

part
 Advantage: more complex shapes possible
 Disadvantage: production rates often limited by the time to
make mold rather than casting itself
2. Permanent mold processes - mold is made of metal and can
be used to make many castings
 Advantage: higher production rates
 Disadvantage: geometries are limited by the need to open the
mold

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©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
STEPS IN SAND CASTING
1. Pour the molten metal into sand mold
2. Allow time for metal to solidify
3. Break up the mold to remove casting
4. Clean and inspect casting
 Separate gating and riser system
5. Heat treatment of casting is sometimes required to
improve metallurgical properties

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©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
THE PATTERN
 Full‑sized model of the part, slightly enlarged to account
for shrinkage and machining allowances in the casting
 Pattern materials:
 Wood - common material because it is easy to work, but it
warps
 Metal - more expensive to fabricate, but lasts longer
 Plastic - compromise between wood and metal

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©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
TYPES OF PATTERNS
 Types of patterns used in sand casting: (a) solid pattern,
(b) split pattern, (c) match‑plate pattern, (d) cope and
drag pattern

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©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
SHELL MOLDING

 Casting process in which

the mold is a thin shell of
sand held together by
thermosetting resin
 Steps: (1) A metal pattern

is heated and placed over

a box containing sand
mixed with TS resin

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©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
STEPS IN SHELL MOLDING
 (2) Box is inverted so that sand
and resin fall onto the hot
pattern, causing a layer of the
mixture to partially cure on the
surface to form a hard shell

 (3) Box is repositioned so

loose uncured particles drop
away

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©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
STEPS IN SHELL MOLDING

 (4) Sand shell is heated in oven

for several minutes to complete
curing

 (5) shell mold is stripped

from pattern

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©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
STEPS IN SHELL MOLDING
 (6) Two halves of the shell
mold are assembled,
supported by sand or metal
shot in a box, and pouring is
accomplished

 (7) Finished casting

with sprue removed

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©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
SHELL MOLDING: ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES

 Advantages:
 Smoother cavity surface permits easier flow of molten metal and
better surface finish
 Good dimensional accuracy
 Mold collapsibility minimizes cracks in casting
 Can be mechanized for mass production
 Disadvantages:
 More expensive metal pattern
 Difficult to justify for small quantities

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©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
EXPANDED POLYSTYRENE PROCESS
 Uses a mold of sand packed around a polystyrene foam
pattern which vaporizes when molten metal is poured
into mold
 Other names: lost‑foam process, lost pattern process,
evaporative‑foam process, and full‑mold process
 Polystyrene foam pattern includes sprue, risers, gating
system, and internal cores (if needed)
 Mold does not have to be opened into cope and drag sections

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©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
STEPS IN
EXPANDED POLYSTYRENE PROCESS
 (1) Polystyrene foam
pattern is coated with
refractory compound

 (2) Foam pattern is placed in mold

box, and sand is compacted around
the pattern

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©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
STEPS IN
EXPANDED POLYSTYRENE PROCESS

 (3) Molten metal is poured

into the portion of the pattern
that forms the pouring cup
and sprue
 As the metal enters the mold,

the polystyrene foam is

vaporized ahead of the
advancing liquid, thus filling
the mold cavity
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©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
EXPANDED POLYSTYRENE PROCESS:
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
 Advantages of expanded polystyrene process:
 Pattern need not be removed from the mold
 Simplifies and speeds mold‑making, because two mold
halves are not required as in a conventional green‑sand mold
 Disadvantages:
 A new pattern is needed for every casting
 Economic justification of the process is highly dependent on
cost of producing patterns

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©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
INVESTMENT CASTING
(A.K.A. LOST WAX PROCESS)

ONE‑PIECE COMPRESSOR STATOR WITH

108 SEPARATE AIRFOILS MADE BY
INVESTMENT CASTING (COURTESY OF
ALCOA HOWMET)

 A pattern made of wax is coated with a refractory material

to make the mold, after which wax is melted away prior to
pouring molten metal
 "Investment" comes from a less familiar definition of "invest" -
"to cover completely," which refers to coating of refractory
material around wax pattern
 It is a precision casting process
 Capable of producing castings of high accuracy and intricate detail

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©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
STEPS IN INVESTMENT CASTING

 (1) Wax patterns are

produced
 (2) Several patterns are

attached to a sprue to
form a pattern tree

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©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
STEPS IN INVESTMENT CASTING

 (3) Pattern tree is

coated with a thin layer
of refractory material
 (4) Full mold is formed

by covering the coated

tree with sufficient
refractory material to
make it rigid

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©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
STEPS IN INVESTMENT CASTING

 (5) Mold is held in an

inverted position and
heated to melt the wax
and permit it to drip out
of the cavity
 (6) Mold is preheated to

a high temperature, the

molten metal is poured,
and it solidifies
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©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
STEPS IN INVESTMENT CASTING

 (7) Mold is broken away

from the finished casting
and the parts are
separated from the sprue

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©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
INVESTMENT CASTING:
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

 Advantages:
 Parts of great complexity and intricacy can be cast
 Close dimensional control and good surface finish
 Wax can usually be recovered for reuse
 This is a net shape process - additional machining is not
normally required
 Disadvantages:
 Many processing steps are required
 Relatively expensive process

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©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
PLASTER MOLD CASTING
 Similar to sand casting except mold is made of plaster of Paris (gypsum
‑ CaSO4‑2H2O)
 In mold-making, plaster and water mixture is poured over plastic or metal
pattern and allowed to set
 Wood patterns not generally used due to extended contact with water
 Plaster mixture readily flows around pattern, capturing its fine details and
good surface finish
 Advantages:
 Good accuracy and surface finish
 Capability to make thin cross sections
 Disadvantages:
 Mold must be baked to remove moisture
 Moisture can cause problems in casting
 Mold strength is lost if over-baked
 Plaster molds cannot stand high temperatures 48
 Limited
©2013 to Wiley
John lower &melting point
Sons, Inc. M alloys
P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
PERMANENT MOLD
CASTING PROCESSES
 Economic disadvantage of expendable mold casting:
 A new mold is required for every casting
 In permanent mold casting, the mold is reused many
times
 Processes include:
 Basic permanent mold casting
 Die casting
 Centrifugal casting

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©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
THE BASIC PERMANENT MOLD
PROCESS
 Uses a metal mold constructed of
two sections designed for easy,
precise opening and closing
 Molds used for casting lower
melting point alloys are commonly
made of steel or cast iron
 Molds used for casting steel must
be made of refractory material, due
to the very high pouring
temperatures

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PERMANENT MOLD CASTING:
ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS
 Advantages of permanent mold casting:
 Good dimensional control and surface finish
 Rapid solidification caused by metal mold results in a finer grain
structure, so castings are stronger
 Limitations:
 Generally limited to metals of lower melting point
 Simpler part geometries compared to sand casting because of need
to open the mold
 High cost of mold

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©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
DIE CASTING
 A permanent mold casting process in which molten
metal is injected into mold cavity under high pressure
 Pressure is maintained during solidification, then mold is
opened and part is removed
 Molds in this casting operation are called dies; hence the
name die casting
 Use of high pressure to force metal into die cavity is what
distinguishes this from other permanent mold processes

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HOT-CHAMBER DIE CASTING
 Metal is melted in a container,
and a piston injects liquid metal
under high pressure into the die
 High production rates
 500 parts per hour not uncommon
 Applications limited to low
melting‑point metals that do not
chemically attack plunger and
other mechanical components
 Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead, and
magnesium

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©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
COLD‑CHAMBER
DIE CASTING
MACHINE

 Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber from external

melting container, and a piston injects metal under high
pressure into die cavity
 High production but not usually as fast as hot‑chamber machines
because of pouring step
 Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and magnesium alloys
 Advantages of hot‑chamber process favor its use on low
melting‑point alloys (zinc, tin, lead)

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©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
MOLDS FOR DIE CASTING
 Usually made of tool steel, mold steel, or maraging steel
 Tungsten and molybdenum (good refractory qualities)

used to die cast steel and cast iron

 Ejector pins required to remove part from die when it

opens
 Lubricants must be sprayed onto cavity surfaces to

prevent sticking

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©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
DIE CASTING:
ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS

 Advantages:
 Economical for large production quantities
 Good accuracy and surface finish
 Thin sections possible
 Rapid cooling means small grain size and good strength in casting
 Disadvantages:
 Generallylimited to metals with low metal points
 Part geometry must allow removal from die

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SQUEEZE CASTING
 Combination of casting and forging in which a molten
metal is poured into a preheated lower die, and the upper
die is closed to create the mold cavity after solidification
begins
 Differs from usual closed-mold casting processes in which
die halves are closed before introduction of the molten metal
 Compared to conventional forging, pressures are less and
finer surface details can be achieved

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SEMI-SOLID METAL CASTING
 Family of net-shape and near net-shape processes
performed on metal alloys at temperatures between
liquidus and solidus
 Thus, the alloy is a mixture of solid and molten metals during
casting (mushy state)
 To flow properly, the mixture must consist of solid metal
globules in a liquid
 Achieved by stirring the mixture to prevent dendrite formation
 Advantages:
 Complex part geometries
 Thin part walls possible
 Close tolerances
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 Zero or low porosity, resulting in high strength of the casting
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
 A family of casting processes in which the mold is
rotated at high speed so centrifugal force distributes
molten metal to outer regions of die cavity
 The group includes:
 True centrifugal casting
 Semicentrifugal casting

 Centrifuge casting

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TRUE CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
 Molten metal is poured into rotating mold to produce a
tubular part
 In some operations, mold rotation commences after pouring
rather than before
 Parts: pipes, tubes, bushings, and rings
 Outside shape of casting can be round, octagonal, hexagonal,
etc , but inside shape is (theoretically) perfectly round, due to
radially symmetric forces

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©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
SEMICENTRIFUGAL CASTING
 Centrifugal force is used to produce
solid castings rather than tubular
parts
 Molds use risers at center to supply
feed metal
 Density of metal in final casting is
greater in outer sections than at
center of rotation
 Often used on parts in which center
of casting is machined away, thus
eliminating the portion where quality
is lowest
 Examples: wheels and pulleys 61

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
CENTRIFUGE CASTING
 Mold is designed with part cavities located away from
axis of rotation, so molten metal poured into mold is
distributed to these cavities by centrifugal force
 Used for smaller parts
 Radial symmetry of part is not required as in other centrifugal
casting methods

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