Microprocessor, Microcontroller & Embedded

System
Course Code: CSE-3523

Course Instructor
Abdullah AL Mostakim
CSE, BRAC
 Major part of MicroComputer
• CPU
• Memory
• Input/Output circuitry
• Buses:
1. Address bus
2. Data bus
3. Control bus
 Microprocessor
Microprocessor is a multipurpose,
programmable register based
electronic device which read binary
instructions from memory,
processes the input data as per
instructions and provides output. It
is
an IC which has only the CPU inside
them i.e. only the processing powers
such as Intel’s Pentium 1,2,3,4, core
2 duo, i3, i5 etc. These Micro
processors don’t have RAM, ROM,
and other peripheral on the chip. A
system designer has to add them
externally to make them functional.
 Microprocessor Characteristics
Three basic characteristics that differentiate microprocessors are-
• Instruction set: The set of instructions that the microprocessor can execute.
MIPS stands for "millions of instructions per second" and is a rough measure of
the performance of a CPU. Modern CPUs can do so many different things that
MIPS ratings lose a lot of their meaning, but you can get a general sense of the
relative power of the CPUs from this column.
• Bandwidth or Data Width: The number of bits processed in a single instruction.
Data Width is the width of the ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit). An 8-bit ALU can
add/subtract/multiply/etc. two 8-bit numbers, while a 32-bit ALU can manipulate
32-bit numbers. An 8-bit ALU would have to execute four instructions to add two
32-bit numbers, while a 32-bit ALU can do it in one instruction. In many cases, the
external data bus is the same width as the ALU, but not always. The 8088 had a
16-bit ALU and an 8-bit bus, while the modern Pentiums fetch data 64 bits at a
time for their 32-bit ALUs.
• Clock speed: Given in megahertz (MHz), the clock speed determines how many
instructions per second the processor can execute. In all cases, the higher the
value, the more powerful the CPU. For example, a 32 bit microprocessor that runs
at 50MHz is more powerful than a 16-bit microprocessor that runs at 25MHz.
 Other Characteristics
• Transistors is the number of transistors on the
chip. You can see that the number of
transistors on a single chip has risen steadily
over the years.
• Microns is the width, in microns, of the
smallest wire on the chip. For comparison, a
human hair is 100 microns thick. As the
feature size on the chip goes down, the
number of transistors rises.
 Microcontroller
• Microcontroller is a device
that includes microprocessor,
memory and input/output
devices on a single chip.
Microcontroller has a CPU, in
addition with a fixed amount
of RAM, ROM and other
peripherals all embedded on
a single chip. At times it is
also termed as a mini
computer or a computer on a
single chip.
 Comparison of Microcontroller and
Microprocessor
Microcontroller Microprocessor
1. Microcontroller having 1. Do not have inbuilt RAM or
inbuilt RAM or ROM and ROM and timer.
inbuilt timer. 2. Input and output ports are
2. Input and output ports are not available, requires
available. extra device like 8255
3. Inbuilt serial port. 3. Do not have inbuilt serial
4. Separate memory to store port, requires 8250 device.
program and data. 4. Program and data are
stored in same memory.
 Comparison of Microcontroller and
Microprocessor
Microcontroller Microprocessor
5. A microcontroller is far 5. A microprocessor is far
cheaper than a costly than a
microprocessor. microcontroller.
6. Microcontrollers are designed 6. Microprocessors are
to perform specific tasks. .
designed to perform multi
7. The clock speed of the
tasks.
Microcontroller is quite low
as compared to the 7. Today’s microprocessor
Microprocessor. The operate above 1GHz as
microcontrollers operate from they perform complex
a few MHz to 30 to 50 MHz tasks.
 Evolution of Microprocessor
We can divide the years of development of
microprocessors as 5 Generations (based on data
width):
1. First generation (1971 – 73)
2. Second Generation (1974 – 1978)
3. Third generation microprocessors (1979 – 80)
4. Fourth Generation (1981 – 1995)
5. Fifth Generation (1995 – till date)
Evolution of Microprocessor
First generation (1971 – 73)

Intel Corporation introduced 4004, the first microprocessor in 1971.

It
is evolved from the development effort while designing a calculator
chip. There were three other microprocessors in the market during
the same period:
1. Rockwell International’s PPS-4 (4 bits)
2. Intel’s 8008 (8 bits)
3. National Semiconductor’s IMP-16 (16 bits)
They were fabricated using PMOS technology which provided low
cost,
slow speed and low output currents. It contained 2300 PMOS
transistor. They were not compatible with TTL.
Intel 4004 Intel 8008
 Evolution of Microprocessor
Second Generation (1974 – 1978)

• Marked the beginning of very • Pipelined instruction

efficient 8 – bit microprocessors. processing introduced
• Some of the popular processors • It is TTL compatible.
were: ⮚ Intel’s 8085
1. Motorola’s 6800 and 6809
2. Intel’s 8085
3. Zilog’s Z80
• They were manufactured using
NMOS technology.
• This technology offered faster
speed and higher density than
PMOS
 Evoluation of Microprocessor
Third generation microprocessors (1979 – 80)

• This age is dominated by 16 – • HMOS can accommodate

bits microprocessors twice the circuit density
• Some of them were: compared to NMOS
1. Intel’s 8086/80186/80286 • The depth of the pipelined=
2. Motorolla’s 68000/68010 increased to five or more
stages.
• They were designed using
HMOS technology
• HMOS provides some
advantages over NMOS as
Speed-power-product of
HMOS is four times better
than that of NMOS.
Evoluation of Microprocessor
Fourth Generation (1981 – 1995)

• This era marked the beginning • Motorola introduced 32-bit RISC

of 32 bits microprocessors processors called MC88100
1. Intel introduced 432, which • 1+ million transistors
was bit problematic • Virtual memory space 240
2. Then a clean 80386 is bytes = 1 Tb
launched. • Floating point hardware
3. Motorola introduced • Supports increased
68020/68030. number of addressing
• They were fabricated using modes
low-power version of the
HMOS technology called
HCMOS. • Intel 80386
Evaluation of Microprocessor
Fifth Generation (1995 – till date)

• This age the emphasis is on

introducing chips that carry on
chip functionalities and
improvements in the speed of
memory and I/O devices along
with introduction of 64-bit
microprocessors.
• Intel leads the show here with
Pentium, Celeron and very
recently dual and quad core
processors working with up to
3.5GHz speed.
• Super scalar technology
• 10+ million transistors
 Types of Microprocessors
Microprocessor

4-bit µp 8-bit µp 16-bit µp 32-bit µp 64-bit µp

Example: Example: Example: Example: Example:

1. Intel- 1. Intel- 1. Intel- 1. Intel-80386 1. Intel Dual
4004 8008 8086 2. Intel Pentium Core
2. Intel- 2. Intel- 3. Intel Pentium 2. Intel Duel
8085 80286 Pro Core 17
4. Intel Pentium II
5. Intel Pentium III
6. Intel Pentium 4
 4-bit Microprocessor
4-bit microprocessor means that ALU can work with 4-bit number
at a time or, data width of this microprocessor is 4-bit.
8-bit Microprocessor
• Intel 8008
8-bit Microprocessor
8-bit microprocessor means that ALU can work with 8-bit
number at a time or, data width of this microprocessor is 8-bit.
16-bit Microprocessor
16-bit microprocessor means that ALU can work with 16-bit
number at a time or, data width of this microprocessor is 16-bit.
 16 bit Microprocessor
• Intel 8086 and 8088
– In 1978 Intel released the 8086; a year or so later,
it released the 8088.
– Both devices are 16-bit microprocessors.
– executed instructions in as little as 400 ns (2.5
millions of instructions per second)
– 8086 & 8088 addressed 1M byte of memory. 16
times more memory than the 8085. 1M-byte
memory contains 1024K byte-sized memory
locations or 1,048,576 bytes
32-bit Microprocessor
32-bit microprocessor means that ALU can work with 32-bit
number at a time or, data width of this microprocessor is 32-bit.
• Intel 80386
32-bit Microprocessor
• Intel-Pentium
32-bit Microprocessor
• Intel-Pentium II
32-bit Microprocessor
• Intel-Pentium III
32-bit Microprocessor
• Intel-Pentium Pro
• Intel Pentium 4
64-bit Microprocessor
64-bit microprocessor means that ALU can work with 64-bit
number at a time or, data width of this microprocessor is 64-bit.
Microprocessor-based Computer System
Hardware of a microprocessor
Hardware of a microprocessor
1. Arithmetic & Logic Unit (ALU)
❑ The part of the central processing unit that deals with operations such as
addition, subtraction and multiplication of integers and Boolean
operations. It receives control signals from the control unit telling it to
carry out these operations.
❑ It works in conjunction with the register array for many of these, in
particular, the accumulator and flag registers. The accumulator holds the
results of operations, while the flag register contains a number of
individual bits that are used to store information about the last operation
carried out by the ALU.
❑ Some of the tasks performed by the ALU are given below:
Addition and subtraction: These two tasks are performed by constructs
of logic gates, such as half adders and full adders. While they may be
termed 'adders', with the aid of they can also perform subtraction via use
of inverters and 'two's complement' arithmetic.
 Hardware of a microprocessor
1. Arithmetic & Logic Unit (ALU)
Multiplication and division: In most modern processors, the multiplication
and division of integer values is handled by specific floating-point hardware
within the CPU. Earlier processors used either additional chips known as
maths co-processors, or used a completely different method to perform the
task.

Logical tests: Further logic gates are used within the ALU to perform a
number of different logical tests, including seeing if an operation produces a
result of zero. Most of these logical tests are used to then change the values
stored in the flag register, so that they may be checked later by separate
operations or instructions. Others produce a result which is then stored, and
used later in further processing.
 Hardware of a microprocessor
1. Arithmetic & Logic Unit (ALU)
Comparison: Comparison operations compare values in order to determine such
things as whether one number is greater than, less than or equal to another.
These operations can be performed by subtraction of one of the numbers from
the other, and as such can be handled by the aforementioned logic gates.
However, it is not strictly necessary for the result of the calculation to be stored
in this instance; the amount by which the values differ is not required. Instead,
the appropriate status flags in the flag register are set and checked to determine
the result of the operation.
Bit shifting: Shifting operations move bits left or right within a word, with
different operations filling the gaps created in different ways. This is accomplished
via the use of a shift register, which uses pulses from the clock within the control
unit to trigger a chain reaction of movement across the bits that make up the
word. Again, this is a quite complicated logical procedure, and further reading
may aid your understanding.
 Hardware of a microprocessor
2. Control Unit (CU)
This controls the movement of instructions in and out of the processor, and
also controls the operation of the ALU. It consists of a decoder, control logic
circuits, and a clock to ensure everything happens at the correct time. It is
also responsible for performing the instruction execution cycle. The three
main elements of the control unit are as follows:

Decoder: This is used to decode the instructions that make up a program

when they are being processed, and to determine in what actions must be
taken in order to process them. These decisions are normally taken by
looking at the opcode of the instruction, together with the addressing
mode
used.
 Hardware of a microprocessor
2. Control Unit (CU)

Timer or clock: The timer or clock ensures that all processes and instructions are
carried out and completed at the right time. Pulses are sent to the other areas of
the CPU at regular intervals (related to the processor clock speed), and actions
only occur when a pulse is detected. This ensures that the actions themselves also
occur at these same regular intervals, meaning that the operations of the CPU are
synchronized.

Control logic circuits: The control logic circuits are used to create the control
signals themselves, which are then sent around the processor. These signals
inform the arithmetic and logic unit and the register array what they actions and
steps they should be performing, what data they should be using to perform said
actions, and what should be done with the results.
Hardware of a microprocessor
3. Memory Array Register
This is a small amount of internal memory that is used for the quick
storage and retrieval of data and instructions. All processors include some
common registers used for specific functions, namely the program
counter, instruction register, accumulator, memory address register and
stack pointer. Many different types of registers are common between
most microprocessor designs. These are:

• Program Counter (PC): This register is used to hold the memory

address of the next instruction that has to execute in a program. This
is to ensure the CPU knows at all times where it has reached, that is
able to resume following an execution at the correct point, and that the
program is executed correctly.
Hardware of a microprocessor
3. Memory Array Register( Cont.)
• Instruction Register (IR): This is used to hold the current instruction in the
processor while it is being decoded and executed, in order for the speed
of the whole execution process to be reduced. This is because the time
needed to access the instruction register is much less than continual
checking of the memory location itself.
• Accumulator (A, or ACC): The accumulator is used to hold the result of
operations performed by the arithmetic and logic unit.
• Memory Address Register (MAR): Used for storage of memory addresses,
usually the addresses involved in the instructions held in the instruction
register. The control unit then checks this register when needs to know
which memory address to check or obtain data from.
Hardware of a microprocessor
3. Memory Array Register( Cont.)
• Memory Buffer Register (MBR): When an instruction or data is
obtained from the memory or elsewhere, it is first placed in the
memory buffer register. The next action to take is then determined
and carried out, and the data is moved on to the desired location.
• Flag register / status flags: The flag register is specially designed to
contain all the appropriate 1-bit status flags, which are changed as a
result of operations involving the arithmetic and logic unit.
• Other general purpose registers: These registers have no specific
purpose, but are generally used for the quick storage of pieces of data
that are required later in the program execution. In the model used
here these are assigned the names A and B, with suffixes of L and U
indicating the lower and upper sections of the register respectively.
Hardware of a microprocessor
4. System Bus: It is used for connections between the
processor, memory and peripherals, and transferal of data
between the various parts. The system bus consists of three
different groups of wiring, called the data bus, control bus and
address bus. These all have separate responsibilities and
characteristics, which can be outlined as follows:
Control Bus: The control bus contains lines that select the memory
or I/O and cause them to perform a read or write operation. In
most computer system, there are four control bus connections:
Hardware of a microprocessor
System Bus (Cont.)
Hardware of a microprocessor
System Bus (Cont.)
• Data Bus: This is used for the exchange of data between the
processor, memory and peripherals, and is bi-directional so that it
allows data flow in both directions along the wires. Data bus may be 8
bits, 16 bits, 32 bits or 64 bits.
• Address Bus: This is a unidirectional bus. This bus is usually 8 to 32
bits wide. Information transfer takes place from the microprocessor
to the memory or I/O elements. For a 16 bit address bus,
microprocessor can generate 216 = 65,536 different possible address.
Each one of these addresses represents a definite memory location or
an I/O element.
5. Memory: The memory is not an actual part of the CPU itself, and
is instead housed elsewhere on the motherboard. However, it is here
that the program being executed is stored, and as such is a crucial part
of the overall structure involved in program execution.
 Memory-addressing techniques
Addressing Memory: • So, for addressing 1KB of
• Using 3-bit we can address 23=8 memory we need at least 10
distinct memory location. So, n bits. And the addresses will be-
number of bits can address 2n 0 to 1023(decimal) or, 000H to
memory locations. 1K Byte = 3FF (HEX) or, 0000 0000 0000
1024 Byte. 210=1024 to 0011 1111 1111 B (Binary)
• Similarly, for addressing 64 KB
of memory we need at least 16
bits.
 Memory-addressing techniques
Addressing Memory:

• How many bits are necessary to address

1MB memory?

1MB= 1024Kbyte= 1,048,576 Byte = 220

Byte. So, we need 20 bits to address
1MByte memory. Addresses will be-
0 to 1,048,575 (Decimal)
00000H to FFFFFH (Hex)
0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 -
1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 B (Binary)

N.B. 8086 has 20-bit address bus. So, it can

addresses 1 MB memory

• N.B. 8086 has 20-bit

address bus. So, it can
addresses 1 MB memory.
Figure 1–13a The physical memory systems of the 8086 through the Core2 microprocessors.
Figure 1–13b The physical memory systems of the 8086 through the Core2 microprocessors.
References:
1. Microprocessor and Microcomputer-Based System
Design by Dr. M. Rafiquzzaman
2. The Intel Microprocessor By Barry B. Bray
3. Internet collection