Module -4

Multiple Access
Techniques
• Multiple Access Techniques: FDMA, TDMA,
CDMA, SDMA, Hybrid Multiple Access
Techniques, Multicarrier Multiple Access
Schemes.
• Text2: 8.2, 8.3, 8.4.5, 8.5, 8.6, 8.10
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
• FDMA divides available radio spectrum into frequency
bands. Each subscriber is assigned a unique frequency band
for the duration of the call.
• The differentiation between the carrier frequencies of the
forward channels (also called downlink-communication
between the cell-site and mobile subscribers) and reverse
channels (also called uplink-communication between the
mobile subscribers and the cell-site) is an important design
parameter related to FDMA technique.
- Used in first-generation analog systems
-Each channel is narrow, which reduces inter-symbol
interference
- Requires highly selective filtering
- Efficient in narrowband systems
• If the forward channels and reverse channels use different
carrier frequencies that are sufficiently spaced, the
duplexing scheme is referred to as FDD.
FDMA Channel Structure

• Each frequency pair

includes an uplink and
downlink frequency.
• A guard band is used to
minimize interference
between channels.
• Duplex spacing is
maintained to separate
forward and reverse
channels effectively.
1. Shared Transmitting Antenna and Nonlinearities:
•In FDMA systems, multiple channels utilize the same transmitting antenna at the
base station.
•Transmitter RF power amplifiers or multichannel power combiners operate near
saturation for maximum efficiency, introducing nonlinearities.
2. Intermodulation and Harmonic Interference:
•Nonlinearities cause signal spreading in the frequency domain, generating
undesirable intermodulation frequencies and harmonics.
•Harmonics within the operating band interfere with active subscribers, while those
outside disrupt adjacent wireless services.
3. Modulation Schemes in First-Generation Systems:
•First-generation analog cellular systems employ FDMA/FDD with frequency
modulation for speech signals.
•Data control functions utilize frequency-shift keying (FSK) modulation for digital
data transmission.
4. Narrowband Transmission and Flat Fading:
•FDMA systems allocate narrow channel bandwidths (B/N Hz) to each mobile
subscriber, facilitating narrowband transmissions.
•Such narrowband transmissions are susceptible to flat fading, which can affect
signal quality.
 FDMA/FDD in AMPS

•Vertical Axis: "Signal Level"

•Horizontal Axis (Left): "Time".
•Horizontal Axis (Right): "Frequency".
Channel Labels:
•Each block (1, 2, 3, 4, ...) represents separate frequency
channels allocated for different users.
•"uplink" and "downlink" channels, or "linear" and "nonlinear"
regions, depending on the system design.
• The AMPS system allocates 30 kHz of channel
bandwidth for each
– uplink (824 MHz–849 MHz)
– downlink (869 MHz–894 MHz) frequency band.
Some of the salient features of the FDMA/ FDD system concept are
given here.
– During the call, a mobile subscriber occupies two simplex
channels, one each on the uplink and downlink, for full-duplex
communication.
– The two simplex channels are spaced by fixed duplex spacing. For
example, duplex spacing in AMPS is (869 MHz–824 MHz =45
MHz).
– When a call is terminated, or when hand-off occurs, the occupied
channels are released which can be used by other mobile subscribers
in the system.
– When a call is terminated, or when hand-off occurs, the occupied
channels are released which can be used by other mobile subscribers
in the system.
– Voice signals are sent on the forward channel from the base station
to the mobile user, and on the reverse channel from the mobile user
to the base station.
 The number of channels, N that can be
simultaneously supported in an FDMA system is
given by
N = (Bt -2 Bg) / Bc
where Bt is the total spectrum allocation, B g is the
guard band allocated at the edge of the allocated
spectrum band, and Bc is the channel bandwidth.

Problem: A US AMPS analog cellular system is allocated

12.5 MHz for each simplex band. If the guard band at either
end of the allocated spectrum is 10 kHz, and the channel
bandwidth is 30 kHz, find the number of channels available
in an FDMA system.
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
• TDMA divides channels into time slots, and each subscriber is
assigned a unique time slot.
- Supports multiple users by time-sharing a frequency
- Each user has access to the full channel bandwidth for a short period
- Synchronization and guard times are required
- Used in GSM, IS-136
A TDMA system may operate in either of two modes:
– TDMA/FDD mode The forward and reverse channel frequencies
differ.
– TDMA/TDD mode The forward and reverse channel frequencies
are same.
• In TDMA/FDD systems, the carrier frequencies are different but
frame structures are same for the forward and reverse channels.
1.Frame and Transmission Rate: Each frame consists of a
set number of time slots with equal duration, and the
transmission rate for the channel is N times higher than a
single-channel rate.
2.Bit Structure of Time Slots: Time slots in a TDMA frame
include two types of bits:
•Signaling and Control Bits: Used for synchronizing and
error rate management, these bits help the receiver handle
functions like frame synchronization and error estimation.
•Traffic Data Bits: Represent information-carrying data
such as digitized speech or other data.
3.Guard Time: The guard time between time slots reduces
interference due to propagation delays across different radio
paths, improving signal clarity in wireless channels.
• TDMA frame consists of a preamble, an information data
field, and tail bits. The information data field of a frame
consists of a number of time slots.
• The preamble contains the address and synchronization
data.
• Tail bits and guard bits allow synchronization of the
receivers between different time slots and frames.
The number of mobile subscribers can communicate with
the base station simultaneously on designated time slots
• where N is the total number of TDMA time slots
in a TDMA system
• m is the number of time slots per carrier channel
or the maximum number of TDMA subscribers
supported on each carrier channel
• Bt is the total allocated spectrum bandwidth in Hz
• Bc is the carrier channel bandwidth in Hz
• Bg is the guard bandwidth in Hz
 Salient Features of TDMA Technique

(a) Several subscribers share a single carrier frequency by

using non-overlapping time slots.
(b) The available bandwidth can be utilized on demand
by different subscribers as more than one time slot
per frame can be allocated to them.
(c) Data transmission is bursty and hence not continuous
in time domain.
(d) A significant part of the voice call consists of quiet
time, when neither the calling nor the called
subscriber is speaking.
(e) The hand-off process is much simpler for a mobile
subscriber in a TDMA system due to discontinuous
transmissions.
Advantages of TDMA cellular over FDMA cellular systems
(a) TDMA systems transmit each signal with sufficient guard time between
time slots. This enables to accommodate the transmission time delay
because of propagation distance, predetermined delay spread, source time
inaccuracies due to clock instability, and the tails of signal pulses due to
transient responses.
(b) There is a threefold to sixfold increase in the number of mobile
subscribers using a single carrier channel because of interleaving
transmissions in the time domain. Digital compression techniques are used
to realise timesharing. It produces bit rates which may be approximately
one-tenth of the initial raw sample rate and about one-fifth of the initial
sample rate after inclusion of error detection/correction bits.
(c) With the use of more advanced digital-modulation schemes and signal-
processing techniques, digital signals are much easier to process than analog
signals.
(d) Digital signals can be easily encrypted at the transmitting end and
decrypted at the receiver end, leading to safeguarding against
eavesdropping.
•Sampling and Digitization: The speech signal is
sampled to convert the analog signal into a digitized
format for processing.
•Speech Encoding: Redundant information is
removed from the digitized speech signal through
encoding, preserving high-quality reproduction at
the receiver.
•Channel Encoding: Controlled redundancy bits are
added to the speech-encoded signal for protection
against channel noise.
•Interleaving: An interleaver pseudo-randomizes the
order of binary symbols in the encoded signal to
mitigate burst errors caused by deep fades in the
wireless channel.
• Packetization: The encoded and interleaved speech data
is divided into packets, each occupying part of a TDMA
frame, which includes synchronization bits.
• Channel Equalization: At the receiver, knowledge of the
channel impulse response allows for channel equalization,
improving signal quality.
• Demodulation and Baseband Processing: The received
modulated signal is converted back to baseband, and the
channel response is estimated.
• Reconstruction of Original Signal: The signal is
deinterleaved, channel decoded, source decoded, and low-
pass filtered to approximate the original speech signal at
the output.
 Spread Spectrum and CDMA
•CDMA and Spread Spectrum: CDMA (Code Division Multiple
Access) is a multiple access technique based on spread spectrum
modulation, allowing multiple subscribers to use the full spectrum
simultaneously without specific coordination.
•Integration of Multiple Data Types: CDMA can integrate various
types of traffic (voice, data, video) and accommodate subscribers
with different bandwidth needs due to its flexible spectrum use.
•Importance of Power Control: Precise power control is crucial in
CDMA systems to minimize interference, as each subscriber’s
signal can impact other users.
•Unique Codes for Subscribers: Each subscriber in CDMA has a
unique code (PN code) that spreads their signal, allowing the
receiver to distinguish it through time correlation, with other codes
appearing as noise.
Code word
 CDMA/FDD
.
CDMA/TDD
1.Spectrum-Spreading Technology: CDMA spreads the
bandwidth of the modulated signal substantially, making it more
resistant to noise, interference, and fading effects.
2.RAKE Receiver and Fading Resistance: The RAKE receiver
concept, utilizing broadband characteristics, helps improve
resistance to fading by capturing signals from multiple paths.
3.Near-Far Problem and Power Control: The near-far problem
(where close-by signals mask far-away ones) is mitigated through
automatic power control, which adjusts the transmitting power of
each mobile to enhance frequency utilization.
4.Orthogonal PN Codes and Chip Rate: CDMA uses
orthogonal PN codes to allow simultaneous data transmission by
multiple users, with the chip rate defining the rate at which bits
change. These unique codes enable the receiver to decode only
the intended signal, ensuring system robustness.
 Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)
• SDMA enhances system capacity by using directional or
smart antennas to separate users in space.
- Used with other techniques like FDMA, TDMA, or CDMA
- Increases frequency reuse by spatially separating users
- Reduces interference
- Applicable in high-density areas
• SDMA techniques control the
radiated energy for each subscriber
in space by using directional or spot
beam antennas at the cell-site.
• These different areas in space
covered by the respective antenna
beam at the cell-site may be served
by the different frequencies in an
FDMA system or same frequency in
a TDMA and SSMA system.
Advantages of SDMA approach
(a) It can be applied with FDMA, TDMA, or CDMA.

(b) It allows many subscribers to operate on the same

frequency and/or time slot in the same cell.

(c) It leads to more number of subscribers within the same

allocated frequency spectrum with enhanced
user capacity.

(d) This technology can be applied at the cell-site without

affecting the mobile subscriber.
 Comparison of Multiple Access Techniques
• FDMA:
• - Allocates different frequencies

• TDMA:
• - Allocates different time slots

• CDMA:
• - Allocates different codes

• SDMA:
• - Allocates different spatial areas

• Each has unique applications and limitations based on system requirements.

 Multiple Access Techniques Overview
• Introduction to FDMA, TDMA, CDMA, and
SDMA techniques used to efficiently manage
spectrum resources in wireless
communication systems.

• These methods are essential for allowing

multiple subscribers to communicate
simultaneously on limited frequencies.
 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
Overview
• TDMA divides a frequency channel into time slots, allowing
multiple users to take turns using the same frequency.

• - Each user transmits in a cyclic, round-robin fashion within

assigned time slots.
• - Utilizes digital technology, making it suitable for systems
like GSM
• - Requires synchronization, with guard times to reduce
overlap.
• - Operates in both TDMA/FDD and TDMA/TDD modes.
 TDMA Frame Structure
• A TDMA frame consists of multiple time slots
assigned to different users.
• - Frames are interleaved with synchronization bits,
traffic data bits, and guard times.
• - Discontinuous transmission allows devices to
conserve power.
• - Synchronization is crucial for orderly access and
signal quality.
• Image: Typical TDMA frame structure with guard
times
 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
Overview
• CDMA assigns a unique spreading code to each user, allowing
all users to transmit simultaneously on the same frequency.

• - Spread-spectrum technology improves resilience to

interference and multipath fading.
• - CDMA supports soft handoff and graceful degradation as
more users join.
• - Widely used in 3G and beyond (e.g., IS-95, WCDMA)
• - Orthogonal codes help separate users in the same
frequency band.
• Image: Basic concept of CDMA codes
 CDMA System Structure
• A CDMA system includes channels where
users are distinguished by their unique codes.
• - Forward and reverse links use separate codes
to reduce interference.
• - RAKE receivers help manage multipath
effects by combining signal reflections.
• Image: RAKE receiver structure in CDMA
systems
 Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)
• SDMA uses directional or smart antennas to separate users
spatially, allowing multiple users to share the same frequency
and time slot.

• - Reduces interference through beamforming and spatial reuse

• - Can be combined with FDMA, TDMA, or CDMA for enhanced
capacity
• - Suitable for environments with high user density (e.g., smart
city applications)
• Image: SDMA concept showing beamforming for spatially
distinct users
 Comparison of Access Techniques
• Each technique has unique features and is suited to different
network environments:

• - FDMA: Suitable for continuous transmission; simple but

spectrum-wasteful
• - TDMA: Time-efficient but requires high synchronization
• - CDMA: High user capacity with robust signal quality; complex to
implement
• - SDMA: Boosts reuse by separating users spatially; leverages
advanced antenna tech.

• Image: Summary table of FDMA, TDMA, CDMA, SDMA

 Hybrid and Future Multiple Access
Techniques
• Hybrid systems often combine FDMA, TDMA, CDMA, and SDMA to
optimize network capacity:

• - Hybrid FDMA/TDMA: Used in systems like GSM to time-share narrow

frequency channels
• - Hybrid TDMA/CDMA: Combines benefits of both methods for high-
capacity digital systems
• - SDMA with FDMA/TDMA/CDMA: Uses advanced antennas to maximize
spatial reuse.

• Future Trends:
• - 5G and beyond are moving towards orthogonal and non-orthogonal
multiple access techniques to accommodate IoT, massive MIMO, and
dense networks.