ENERGY ENGINEERING

Unit-02: Liquid fuels

Submitted To: Submitted By:

Proff. Ankur Gaur Atul Verma(20209020)
What is Liquid Fuels?

 Liquid fuels are any liquids that can be

burned to produce energy.

 They are mainly used in transportation, but

also for heating and other purposes.

 There are two main types of liquid fuels:

fossil fuels and biofuels.
 Fossil fuels are created from the fossilized remains of plants and
animals that lived millions of years ago. The most common fossil fuels
are petroleum, natural gas, and coal. Petroleum is refined into
gasoline, diesel, and other fuels. Natural gas is often used for heating
homes and businesses. Coal is used to generate electricity.

 Biofuels are made from renewable sources, such as plants, algae, and
manure. The most common biofuels are ethanol, biodiesel, and biogas.
Ethanol is made from fermented corn or sugarcane. Biodiesel is
made from vegetable oil or animal fat. Biogas is made from the
decomposition of organic matter.
 Properties of Liquid Fuels
 Density: It is an important property because it affects the weight
of the fuel and how much energy it can store. For example,
gasoline has a density of about 0.74 kg/L, while diesel fuel has a
density of about 0.85 kg/L.

 Viscosity: The viscosity of a liquid fuel is its resistance to flow. It

is an important property because it affects how easily the fuel can
be pumped and transported.

 Flash point: The flash point of a liquid fuel is the lowest

temperature at which the fuel will give off vapors that can ignite
when exposed to a flame. For example, gasoline has a flash point
of about -43°C, while diesel fuel has a flash point of about 52°C.
This means that gasoline is more likely to catch fire than diesel
fuel.
 Autoignition temperature: The autoignition temperature of a
liquid fuel is the temperature at which the fuel will spontaneously ignite
without the presence of a flame. For example, gasoline has an
autoignition temperature of about 245°C, while diesel fuel has an
autoignition temperature of about 250°C.

 Heat of combustion: The heat of combustion of a liquid fuel is the

amount of heat that is released when the fuel is burned. For example,
gasoline has a heat of combustion of about 43 MJ/kg, while diesel fuel
has a heat of combustion of about 45 MJ/kg.

 Due to the flammable and potentially hazardous nature of liquid fuels,

strict regulations and best practices govern their handling, storage,
and transportation.
 Handling of Liquid Fuels
 Personnel: Proper personal protective equipment (PPE) like gloves,
goggles, and fire-resistant clothing is mandatory.

 Containers: Use approved containers designed for fuel storage and

transport. These have features like flame arrestors and secure closures.

 Transfer: Ground all equipment during transfer to prevent static

electricity build-up. Use designated pumps and hoses, avoiding spills
and splashes.

 Spills and leaks: Have a spill containment plan in place. Immediately

address any spills with absorbent materials and ensure proper disposal.

 Safety precautions: Eliminate ignition sources near fuel, clearly

mark containers, post warning signs, and have fire extinguishers readily
available.
 Storage of Liquid
Fuels

 Location: Store fuel in cool, dry, well-ventilated areas away from heat
sources and ignition points. Secure the storage area to prevent
unauthorized access.

 Compliance: Adhere to relevant regulations based on fuel type,

quantity, and storage duration. Different fuels have specific
requirements.

 Ventilation: Ensure proper ventilation to prevent vapor build-up.

 Regular inspections: Conduct regular inspections for leaks,
damage, and proper labeling.
 Transportation of Liquid Fuels

 Vehicles: Use appropriately designed and marked vehicles certified for

fuel transport. Secure fuel containers properly with tie-downs to prevent
movement during transit.

 Documentation: Carry necessary documentation like safety data

sheets and transport permits. Be aware of route restrictions and
regulations.

 Spillage prevention: Secure containers to prevent leaks and spills.

Have spill kits available in case of accidents.

 Driver training: Drivers must be trained on safe handling practices,

emergency procedures, and spill response protocols.
 Combustion Characteristics of Liquid
Fuels
 Volatility: The ease with which a fuel vaporizes affects its ignition and
burning behavior. Highly volatile fuels like gasoline ignite easily but may
have higher emissions. Less volatile fuels like diesel require
atomization (breaking into fine droplets) for efficient combustion.

 Viscosity: The thickness of the fuel affects its pumping and

atomization. High viscosity fuels need preheating or special injectors for
proper combustion.

 Chemical composition: The presence of different elements like

sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen in the fuel can influence emissions and
soot formation.

 Heating value: The amount of energy released per unit mass of fuel
determines its efficiency and applicability.
 Associated Problems of Liquid Fuels

 Incomplete combustion: This occurs when insufficient oxygen is

available, leading to the formation of harmful pollutants like carbon
monoxide (CO), unburnt hydrocarbons (HC), and particulate matter (PM).

 Nitrogen oxide (NOx) formation: High combustion temperatures

promote the reaction between nitrogen and oxygen in the air, forming NOx,
a major contributor to smog and acid rain.

 Soot formation: Incomplete combustion and rich fuel mixtures can lead
to the formation of soot, which contributes to air pollution and can increase
maintenance needs.

 Sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions: Fuels with high sulfur content

release SO2 during combustion, contributing to acid rain and respiratory
problems.
 Fuel Specification and Standards

API Gravity Flash point

This is the lowest temperature at which a fuel will give
off vapors that can ignite when exposed to a flame.

Cetane number Octane number

This is a measure of the ignition quality of This is a measure of the anti-knock properties of
diesel fuel. Higher cetane numbers indicate gasoline. Higher octane numbers indicate that the fuel
that the fuel will ignite more readily. is less likely to knock or ping in an engine.

Reid vapor pressure (RVP) Sulfur content

This is a measure of the volatility of gasoline. The sulfur content of fuel is regulated in many
Higher RVP fuels vaporize more easily, which countries to reduce air pollution. Lower sulfur content
can be a problem in hot weather, but they fuels are better for the environment.
also start easier in cold weather.
 Origin of petroleum

 The origin of petroleum, also known as crude oil, is a

fascinating story that stretches back millions of years. It's a
story of ancient life, immense pressure, and geologic time.

 The vast majority of scientists agree that petroleum is a fossil

fuel, meaning it formed from the fossilized remains of organic
matter. These organic materials were primarily marine
organisms, such as plankton ,Algae , and Bacteria.
 Classification of Crude Petroleum
 Crude oil is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons (compounds made
up of hydrogen and carbon) along with other elements like sulfur,
nitrogen, and oxygen.
 Here are the two main criteria used for classifying crude oil: Sulfur
Content & API Gravity

 Based on these criteria, crude oil can be broadly categorized as:

1. Light Crude Oil: Has high API gravity (above 30) and low sulfur
content (less than 0.5%). Easier to refine and yields more valuable
products like gasoline and diesel.
2. Medium Crude Oil: Moderate API gravity (22-30) and sulfur content
(0.5-1.5%). Requires more complex refining but produces a wider
range of products.
3. Heavy Crude Oil: Low API gravity (below 22) and high sulfur
content (above 1.5%). More challenging to refine and yields lower-
value products like fuel oil and asphalt.
 Refining of Crude Petroleum
 Refining is the process of transforming crude oil into various usable products.
It involves several steps, each targeting specific components within the crude
oil mixture.

1. Separation: Crude oil is heated in a distillation tower, separating it into fractions

based on boiling points. Lighter fractions like gasoline and naphtha rise to the top, while
heavier fractions like diesel and fuel oil settle at the bottom

2. Conversion: Heavier fractions can be further broken down into lighter products
through cracking processes like catalytic cracking or thermal cracking. This increases
the yield of valuable gasoline and other fuels

3. Treating: Various treatments are applied to remove impurities like sulfur, nitrogen,
and metals. This improves the quality and environmental performance of the final
products.

4. Blending: Different refined fractions are blended to create products with specific
properties tailored for various applications.
What is Knocking ?

 Knocking, also known as detonation, pinging,

or pre-ignition, is an abnormal combustion
phenomenon that occurs in spark-ignition
internal combustion engines when the air-fuel
mixture ignites prematurely before the spark
plug fires.

 This premature ignition creates shockwaves

that can damage the engine and reduce its
performance.
 Octane rating and Cetane rating of fuels

Octane rating Cetane rating

This rating applies to gasoline and indicates its This rating applies to diesel fuel and
resistance to knocking (abnormal combustion) in measures its ignition delay, which is the
spark-ignition (SI) engines. Knocking can time between fuel injection and
damage the engine and reduce performance. combustion.

 Higher octane rating: Fuel is more resistant  Higher cetane rating: Fuel ignites
to knocking, allowing for higher compression faster, leading to smoother
ratios and more efficient combustion, operation, reduced noise, and lower
potentially leading to better power and fuel emissions.
economy.  Lower cetane rating: Fuel ignites
 Lower octane rating: Fuel is more prone to slower, potentially causing rough
knocking, requiring lower compression ratios running, increased noise, and
and potentially resulting in decreased higher emissions.
efficiency and power.  Typical range: 40-55 for most
 Typical range: 87-93 for most gasoline diesel engines. High-performance
vehicles. Higher performance vehicles may diesels may benefit from higher
require 98+ octane. cetane numbers.
 Gaseous fuels: Manufacture, properties and characteristics

1. Natural Gas:
 Manufacture: Found underground in rock formations and extracted
through drilling.

 Properties: Primarily composed of methane (CH4) with small

amounts of ethane, propane, and other hydrocarbons. It is colorless,
odorless, and flammable.

 Characteristics: High calorific value, clean burning, readily available,

and relatively inexpensive. Used for heating, cooking, power
generation, and industrial applications
2. Compressed Natural Gas (CNG):

 Manufacture: Natural gas compressed to a high pressure, stored in

cylinders, and used as a fuel for vehicles.
 Properties: Same as natural gas but stored in a compressed form for
transportation.
 Characteristics: Cleaner burning than gasoline, reduces greenhouse
gas emissions, and offers extended driving range compared to
traditional gasoline vehicles.

3. Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG):

 Manufacture: A mixture of propane and butane, extracted from natural

gas processing or petroleum refining.
 Properties: Colorless, odourless, and flammable gas that liquifies
under pressure.
 Characteristics: Burns cleanly, portable, and widely used for cooking,
heating, and industrial applications in areas without access to natural
gas pipelines.
4. Coal Gas:

 Manufacture: Historically produced by heating coal in the absence of air

(carbonization). No longer widely used due to environmental concerns and the
availability of natural gas.
 Properties: A mixture of hydrogen, carbon monoxide, methane, and other
gases.
 Characteristics: Toxic due to carbon monoxide content, low calorific value,
and replaced by cleaner alternatives.

5. Coke Oven Gas:

 Manufacture: Byproduct of coal coking process, where coal is heated in the

absence of air to produce coke for steelmaking.
 Properties: Similar to coal gas in composition.
 Characteristics: Lower calorific value than natural gas, primarily used in
industrial settings near coke ovens.
6. Producer Gas:

 Manufacture: Produced by passing air and steam through a bed of hot

coal or coke, converting the coal into a mixture of gases.
 Properties: Mainly composed of carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and
nitrogen.
 Characteristics: Low calorific value, historically used in industrial
applications but largely replaced by other fuels.

7. Water Gas:

 Manufacture: Similar to producer gas but uses steam instead of air,

resulting in a higher hydrogen content.
 Properties: Primarily composed of hydrogen and carbon monoxide.
 Characteristics: Higher calorific value than producer gas, historically
used in industrial applications but replaced by cleaner alternatives.