Transformer

The Ideal Transformer

• An ideal transformer is a lossless device with an input winding and an
output winding.
 THE IDEAL TRANSFORMER
• Turn Ratio

• Primary Power = Secondary power

• Primary mmf = secondary mmf

• In terms of phasors,
 THE IDEAL TRANSFORMER
• Phase angle of = the phase angle
of

• Phase angle of = the phase angle

of

• Only possible to tell secondary's

polarity if T/F were opened and its
windings examined
– To avoid this, T/Fs utilize dot
convention
– Dots appearing at one end of each
winding tell the polarity of voltage
and current on secondary
 The Ideal Transformer
• If primary voltage is positive at dotted end of winding with respect to
undotted end, then secondary voltage will be positive at dotted end
also
• Voltage polarities are same with respect to dots on each side of core
• If primary current flows into dotted end, secondary current will flow
out of dotted end
 Power in an Ideal Transformer
• Real power

• angle between primary voltage and primary current

• Real power

• angle between secondary voltage and secondary current.

• Voltage and current angles unaffected by ideal T/F

• Same power factor on primary and secondary side

 Power in an Ideal Transformer
• Since

• i.e., output power of an ideal T/F is equal to its input power

• Same applies to reactive power Q and apparent power S:

 Impedance Transformation Through a Transformer
• Impedance defined as

• T/F changes voltage and current levels

• Also changes the ratio between them
• hence apparent impedance also changes
 Impedance Transformation Through a Transformer
• Impedance of load

• Apparent impedance seen in primary circuit

 Impedance Transformation Through a Transformer
• Since

• and

• Apparent impedance seen in primary

• Impedance matching possibility!

– Why?
 Analysis of Circuits Containing Ideal Transformers
Example 2-1. A single-phase power system consists of a 480-V 60-Hz generator
supplying a load through a transmission line of impedance . Answer the
following questions about this system.
(a) what will the voltage at the load be? What will the transmission line losses
be?
(b) Suppose a 1: 10 step-up transformer is placed at the generator end of the
transmission line and a 10:1 step-down transformer is placed at the load
end of the line What will the load voltage be now? What will the
transmission line losses be now.
 Analysis of Circuits Containing Ideal Transformers
Example 2-1. A single-phase power system consists of a 480-V 60-Hz generator
supplying a load through a transmission line of impedance . Answer the
following questions about this system.
(a) what will the voltage at the load be? What will the transmission line losses
be?
(b) Suppose a 1: 10 step-up transformer is placed at the generator end of the
transmission line and a 10:1 step-down transformer is placed at the load
end of the line What will the load voltage be now? What will the
transmission line losses be now.
Analysis of Circuits Containing Ideal Transformers
Analysis of Circuits Containing Ideal Transformers
Analysis of Circuits Containing Ideal Transformers
Analysis of Circuits Containing Ideal Transformers
Analysis of Circuits Containing Ideal Transformers
Analysis of Circuits Containing Ideal Transformers
Analysis of Circuits Containing Ideal Transformers
Analysis of Circuits Containing Ideal Transformers
Exercise Problem 2-14
Exercise Problem 2-14
 Analysis of Circuits Containing Ideal Transformers
• Note
– Raising transmission voltage reduces transmission losses
– Voltage at load dropped much less with T/Fs
Theory Of Operation Of Real Single-Phase Transformers
 Theory Of Operation Of Real Single-Phase Transformers
• A real transformer close to but not ideal

• Imagine an open-circuited trafo

– (Faraday’s Law)
– where is the flux linkage
– as

• Flux passing through each turn of a coil slightly different from flux in other turns,
depending on position of turn within coil

• Average flux per turn and

 The Voltage Ratio across a Transformer
• Average flux present in primary winding of transformer is

• Effect on secondary coil depends on how much of flux reaches secondary

• Not all flux produced in primary

also passes through secondary

• Note leakage flux

 The Voltage Ratio across a Transformer
• Flux in primary and secondary coils consists of:
– Mutual Flux
– Leakage flux

• Faraday's law for primary and secondary circuits can be expressed as

– Due to mutual flux

and so
so

• In a well-designed transformer
and ,
We can say
 The Magnetization Current in a Real Transformer
• Current flows in primary, even when secondary is open-circuited
– Required to produce flux in a real ferromagnetic core

• Two components
1. Magnetization current , required to produce flux
2. Core-loss current required to make up for hysteresis and eddy current losses
The Magnetization Current in a Real Transformer
 The Magnetization Current in a Real Transformer
• Note:
• Magnetization current not sinusoidal
– Higher frequency components due to magnetic
saturation

• When flux reaches saturation point

– Small increase in flux requires very large increase in
magnetization current

• Fundamental component of magnetization

current lags voltage applied to core by 90°

• Higher-frequency components in
magnetization current
– Quite large compared to fundamental component
– Further a core driven into saturation, larger the
 The Core-loss Current in a Real Transformer
• Other component of no-load current
– Current required to supply power for
hysteresis and eddy current losses

• Assuming sinusoidal flux

– Eddy currents proportional to ,
– Eddy currents peak when flux is passing
through 0 Wb

• Therefore, core-loss current greatest

as flux passes through zero

• Core-loss current nonlinear because

of nonlinear hysteresis

• Fundamental component of core-loss

current in phase with voltage applied
 The Excitation Current in a Real Transformer
• Total no-load current called excitation current

• Sum of magnetization current and core-loss current

• In a well-designed power T/F

– Excitation current << full -load current
 Real Transformer to Ideal Transformer
• Assumptions required to convert a real T/F into
ideal T/F:

1. Core must have no hysteresis or eddy currents

2. For an unsaturated core net mmf =0

– Reluctance of a well-designed T/F core until core is

saturated
– , as long as core is unsaturated
3. Leakage flux in core must be zero
4. Resistance of T/F windings must be zero
 The Equivalent Circuit Of A Transformer
• Losses in real T/Fs should be accounted for in any accurate model
• Major items to be considered for such a model:
1. Copper () losses
• Resistive heating losses in primary and secondary windings
– Proportional to square of current
2. Eddy current losses
• Resistive heating losses in core
– Proportional to square of voltage applied
3. Hysteresis Losses
• Associated with rearrangement of magnetic domains in core
– Complex nonlinear function of the voltage applied
4. Leakage flux
• and which escape core and pass through only one winding
– Produce leakage inductance in primary and secondary coils
 The Exact Equivalent Circuit of a Real Transformer
• Copper losses
– Resistive losses in primary and secondary windings
– Modeled by placing a resistor
• in primary circuit
• in secondary circuit
 The Exact Equivalent Circuit of a Real Transformer
• Leakage flux in primary induces voltage

• Leakage flux in secondary induces voltage

• Air reluctance much higher than core reluctance

and
and
• Therefore
 The Exact Equivalent Circuit of a Real Transformer
• Constants lumped together

• Where
– leakage inductance of primary coil
– leakage inductance of secondary coil

• Therefore, leakage flux will be modeled by primary

and secondary inductors
 The Exact Equivalent Circuit of a Real Transformer
• Core excitation effects
– Magnetization current
• Proportional to voltage applied
• Lagging applied voltage by 90o,
• Modeled by a reactance connected across primary voltage
source

– Core-loss current
• Proportional to voltage applied to winding
• In phase with applied voltage
• Modeled with a resistance connected across primary

• Remember both currents are really nonlinear

 The Exact Equivalent Circuit of a Real Transformer
• resistance of primary winding
• reactance due to primary leakage inductance
• resistance of secondary winding
• reactance due to secondary leakage inductance
• Excitation branch modeled by
– (hysteresis and core losses)
– (the magnetization current)
• Elements forming excitation branch placed inside and
 The Exact Equivalent Circuit of a Real Transformer

Transformer
model referred to
primary side

Transformer
model referred
to secondary side
 The Approximate Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer
• Models shown are complex
– Excitation branch of model adds another node
– Excitation branch current very small current
• only about 2-3% of the full load current
• Needs a simplified equivalent circuit that works well
• Excitation branch moved to the front of T/F
– Sometimes neglected entirely
The Approximate Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer
 Determining the Values of Components in the Transformer Model
• Possible to experimentally determine values
obtained with two tests
– The open-circuit test
– The short-circuit test
 Determining the Values of Components in the Transformer Model
• The open-circuit test
– One winding is open-circuited
– Other winding connected to full rated voltage (LV side)
• Input voltage (), input current () , and input power () measured
• All input current must be flowing through excitation branch
• and too small in comparison to and
• Essentially all input voltage across excitation branch
 Determining the Values of Components in the Transformer Model
• Admittance of excitation branch

• Magnitude of excitation admittance

• Open-circuit power factor

• Power factor always lagging

 Determining the Values of Components in the Transformer Model
• The short-circuit test
– LV terminals short-circuited
– HV terminals connected to variable voltage source
– Input voltage gradually increased to get rated current in
short-circuited winding
– Measure
• input voltage ()
• input current ()
• input power ()
 Determining the Values of Components in the Transformer Model
• Ignore excitation branch
• Only series elements left
• magnitude of series impedances referred to primary side

• power factor (always lagging)

• Series impedance given by:

 Determining the Values of Components in the Transformer Model:
notes
• Total series impedance determined
– Referred to high-voltage side
– No easy way to split series impedance into primary and secondary
parts
– Separation not necessary to solve problems

• Open-circuit test usually performed on low-voltage side

– and usually found referred to low-voltage side
• Short-circuit test usually performed on high-voltage side
– and usually found referred to high-voltage side

• All must be referred to same side to make final equivalent

circuit
Determining the Values of Components in the Transformer Model

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Determining the Values of Components in the Transformer Model
Determining the Values of Components in the Transformer Model
Determining the Values of Components in the Transformer Model
 The Per-Unit System of Measurements
• Trafo calculations are tedious
– Moving around impedances
– Getting back to original circuit for voltage and current calculations

• Solution: Per-unit system

• Advantages
– No back and forth
– Impedances remain in a narrow range in per-unit
– Actual values vary for different trafo sizes

• Method
– All quantities in per-unit (pu) or percent of corresponding base value
 The Per-Unit System of Measurements
• Base values ()
– Two selected arbitrarily (usually and )
– Others calculated from these two

• Single-phase relationships
 The Per-Unit System of Measurements - Method
• Select Base and at any point in a network
• Trafo does not affect
• It does affect
• Base voltage keeps changing across trafo according to turns
ratio

• Will be clear with example

Example
 Example
• Solution
 Example
• Solution
 Example
• Solution
 Example
• Solution (b)
 Example
• Solution (c)
 Example
• Solution (d)
 The Per-Unit System of Measurements - Important
• When only one device is being analyzed
– Device ratings used as base values

• Example values
– Series resistance: 0.01 pu
– Series reactance: 0.02 – 0.1 pu
– Magnetizing reactance: 10 – 40 pu
– Core-loss resistance: 50 – 200 pu

• Trafo and machine impedances given in pu on

nameplates
 The Per-Unit System of Measurements – Base conversion
• When more than one device in a system
– Arbitrary (usually equal to largest MVA component in
system)
– as appropriate
– Component values given in pu on individual component
ratings as bases
– Convert component parameters to new pu values based on
new base values
Example
 Example
• Solution
 Transformer Voltage Regulation and Efficiency
• A real T/F has a series impedance
– output voltage varies with load
• Full-load Voltage regulation (VR)

• Smaller the VR, the better

• For an ideal T/F,

• Small VR could lead to high fault currents

 The Transformer Phasor Diagram
• VR depends on
– Magnitude of series impedances
– Phase angle of current

• How: examine phasor diagram

• KVL in the equivalent circuit

• Lagging load
 The Transformer Phasor Diagram
• Unity power factor load

• Leading load
 Transformer Efficiency
• Efficiency:

• Losses present in T/Fs:

1. Copper losses: Accounted for by series impedance
2. Hysteresis losses: Included in resistor
3. Eddy current losses: Included in resistor

• Output power:

• So, efficiency is:

Example
Example
Example
Example
Example
Example
Example
Example
Example
Example
Example
 Transformer Taps and Voltage Regulation
• Turns ratio or voltage ratio assumed constant until now

• Not true for real T/Fs

– Have a series of taps in windings
– To permit small changes in turns ratio

• A typical tap number is four in addition to nominal setting

– With spacings of 2.5 % of full-load voltage between them

• Why: provide adjustment of up to 5% above or below nominal

voltage rating
– Why: to counter supply voltage variations

• Taps cannot be changed without switching trafo off

 Transformer Taps and Voltage Regulation: Power transformers
• Grids experience widely varying conditions

• Power Trafos should be able to cope with these conditions

• One solution is a tap changing under load (TCUL) trafo

• TCUL T/F is a T/F with ability to change taps while supplying

power
The Autotransformer
• Sometimes desirable to change
voltage levels by only a small
amount
– For example: from 110 to 120 V or
from 13.2 to 13.8 kV

• Why: to counter voltage drops

• Wasteful and expensive to wind a

T/F with two full windings each
rated at about the same voltage
– Solution: Autotransformer
 The Autotransformer
• Construction:
– Windings are connected electrically
– Remember they are also linked
magnetically
– Means voltage relationships in
windings are dictated by turns ratio
– But output voltage is algebraic sum
of induced voltages

• First winding called common

winding
• Second winding called series
winding
 The Autotransformer
• Step-down auto T/F
• Voltage on common coil called
common voltage
• Current in common coil called
common current
• Voltage on series coil called series
voltage
• Current in series coil called series
current
 The Autotransformer
• Terminal quantities:
– Voltage and current on low-voltage side called and
– Quantities on high-voltage side called and

• Primary and secondary are interchangeable

– Step-up functionality
– Step-down functionality

• Related equations
 The Autotransformer – Voltage relations
• Terminal voltages

• As

• As
 The Autotransformer – Current Relations
• Terminal current relationships

• As

• as
 The Autotransformer – Power Relations
• Connection is electrical and magnetic both in
autotrafo
• Trafo can handle much more power than two-
winding magnetic coupling

• Input apparent power

• Output apparent power

• Both are equal

 The Autotransformer – Power Relations
• Apparent power in Auto T/F windings

• Therefore
 The Autotransformer – Power Relations
• Smaller the series winding, greater the advantage

• Example
– 5000-kVa auto T/F
– Connecting a 110-kV system to a 138-kV system would have turns ratio .

• Such an auto T/F would have windings rated

• Much smaller trafo does the job as an autotrafo with high VA rating

• Trafo with near equal voltage ratings built in this manner

 Three-phase Transformers

• Major power generation and distribution systems in

the world are three-phase

• Transformers for three-phase circuits can be

constructed by
– Taking three single-phase transformers and connecting
them in a bank
• Reliable because a failed trafo can be replaced by another

– Making a three-phase transformer consisting of three

sets of windings wrapped on a common core
• Slightly more efficient
Three-phase Bank vs. Single three-phase trafo
 Three-Phase Transformer Connections
• Possible three-phase connections
– Wye (Y)
– Delta .

• Four possible connections for a three-phase transformer bank

– 1. Wye- wye ()
– 2. Wye-delta ()
– 3. Delta-wye ()
– 4. Delta-delta ()

• Analysis: look at a single transformer in bank

– All calculations done on a per-phase basis
– Same techniques as for single-phase T/F
Y-Y Connection
 Y-Y Connection
• Primary voltage on each phase

• Primary-phase voltage related to

secondary-phase voltage by turns ratio

• Line voltage on secondary

• Overall voltage ratio on T/F

• Y - Y connection problems
– Unbalanced load causes severe phase voltage
unbalance
– Third-harmonic voltages can be large
 Y-Y Connection
• Third harmonic problem
– Fundamental frequency voltages
apart
– Third-harmonic components in phase

• Third-harmonic components always

present
– Nonlinearity of core
– Nonlinearity of generator output

• Result: very large third-harmonic

component on top of fundamental
– Can be larger than fundamental
voltage itself
 Y-Y Connection
• Solution to the problems
– 1
• Solidly ground neutrals, especially primary
winding's neutral
• Permits additive third-harmonic
components to cause a current flow in
neutral instead of building up large voltages
• Neutral also provides a return path for any
current imbalances in load
– 2
• Add a third (tertiary) winding connected in
Δ to T/F bank
• Third-harmonic components of voltage in Δ
add up
• Cause circulating current flow within
winding
– 3
• Suppress third-harmonic components by
 Y-Y Connection

• Δ-connected tertiary windings

– Often used to supply lights and
auxiliary power within substation
– Tertiary windings must be large
enough to handle circulating
currents
– usually made about one-third of
power rating of main windings

• In practice, very few Y -Y

transformers used
Y-Δ Connection
 Y-Δ Connection
• Third-harmonic components consumed
in circulating current on Δ side

• Connection more stable with respect to

unbalanced loads
– Δ partially redistributes any imbalance

• Problem
– Secondary voltage shifted 30° relative to
primary voltage
– Can cause problems in paralleling
secondaries of two T/F banks together
– Phase angles of T/F secondaries must be
equal if they are to be paralleled
– Attention must be paid to direction of 30°
phase shift
– Convention: line-voltage of LV side lags line-
 Three-phase Transformer - Δ-Y Connection
• Same
advantages
and same
phase shift as
the Y – Δ

• Secondary
voltage phase
shifted from
primary
voltage by 300
 Three-phase Transformer - Δ- Δ Connection

• No phase shift
associated

• No problems with
unbalanced loads
or harmonics
 Per-unit system for three-phase transformers
• Single-phase equations apply to three-phase on a per-phase basis
 Per-unit system for three-phase transformers
• Line quantities can be expressed in per-unit
 Three-phase Transformation Using Two Transformers
• Possible to supply three-phase power with only two transformers

• Employed to create three-phase power where not all three power

lines are available
– Useful for a three-phase consumer on the system

• All techniques involve reduction in power-handling capability of

transformers

• Some of the more important two-transformer connections are

– 1. The open-Δ (or V- V) connection
– 2. The open-Y-open-Δ connection
– 3. The Scott-T connection
– 4. The three-phase T connection
 The Open-Δ ( or V- V) Connection

• Suppose a Δ-Δ T/F bank has a damaged phase removed

• This connection produces same voltage as with three trafos

• Phase C sometimes called a ghost phase

• Open-delta connection lets some power flow even with a phase

removed
The Open-Δ ( or V- V) Connection
Power calculations for
Open delta

Power calculations for

Open delta
The Open-Δ ( or V- V) Connection

One transformer
producing reactive
power which the other
is consuming
The Open-Wye- Open-Delta Connection
• Very similar to open-delta
connection
• Primary voltages derived from
two phases and neutral

• Major disadvantage
• A very large return
current must flow in the
neutral of primary
 The Scott-T Connection
• A way to derive two
phases 90° apart from a
three-phase power
supply
• Consists of two single-
phase transformers with
identical ratings
• One has a tap on its
primary winding at 86.6
percent of full-load
Voltage
• 86.6 percent tap of T2
connected to center tap
of T1
 The Scott-T Connection
• Input and output shown

• Since these voltages are

90° apart, they result in a
two-phase output

• Rarely used for two-

phase control
applications
 The three-phase T Connection
• Modification of Scott-T
connection for three-
phase output

• Input line and primary

winding voltages
 The three-phase T Connection
• Modification
of Scott-T
connection for
three-phase
output

• Secondary
winding and
output line
voltages
 Transformer Ratings and Related Problems

• Transformers have four major ratings:

– 1. Apparent power (kVA, or MVA)
– 2. Primary and secondary voltage (V)
– 3. Frequency (Hz)
– 4. Per-unit series resistance and reactance
 The Voltage and Frequency Ratings of a Transformer
• Protect winding insulation from breakdown

• Second related to magnetization curve and magnetization

current
– Increase in applied voltage results in proportional flux increase
– In saturation region, small increase in flux requires large
magnetizing current
– Maximum applied voltage (rated voltage) set by maximum
acceptable magnetization current
 The Voltage and Frequency Ratings of a Transformer
• Increasing
maximum flux
needs very high
currents
 The Voltage and Frequency Ratings of a Transformer
• Voltage and frequency related in reciprocal fashion:

• If a 60-Hz T/F is to be operated on 50 Hz

– Applied voltage must also be reduced by one-sixth
– Called derating

• A 50-Hz T/F may be operated at a 20 percent higher voltage on 60 Hz

– If this does not cause insulation problems
 The Apparent Power Rating of a Transformer
• Apparent power rating limits current flow through windings

• Current flow controls I2R losses

– Losses cause heating
– Heating is critical
• Overheating drastically shortens life of insulation

• T/Fs rated in apparent power

– Because same amount of heating occurs for a given amount of current, regardless of
its phase

• Multiple apparent power ratings

– Apparent power rating with natural cooling
– Another (higher) rating with forced cooling

• If voltage reduced for any reason (e.g., operated at a lower frequency than
normal)
The Transformer Nameplate
 INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
• Special-purpose transformers for taking measurements
– Potential transformer
– Current transformer
 Potential Transformer
• Potential transformer
– High-voltage primary
– Low-voltage secondary
– Very low power rating
• Only load is voltmeter
– Must be very accurate
– PTs with several accuracy classes available
 Current Transformers
• Current transformers
– Step down current to safe and measurable level
• Construction
– Secondary winding wrapped around a ferromagnetic ring
– Primary line running through center of ring
• Current in primary creates flux and induces voltage
• Flux induces a proportional voltage and current in secondary
 Current Transformers
• CT windings loosely coupled
• Mutual flux < leakage flux
• Voltage and current ratios of conventional trafos do not apply
• Nevertheless, secondary current directly proportional to much larger
primary current

• Typical CT ratios: 600/5, 800/5, or 1000/5

• Important to keep a CT secondary circuit closed
– Otherwise, high voltages can appear across open secondary
– Relays and other devices connected to CT secondary
• Have a shorting interlock
• Shut before the relay can be removed for inspection or adjustment
Power Transformer Testing