II Year B.

Sc CS
A12: Sensors and Transducers
 Module 1
Unit I [16 T]
Transducers: Definition, Principle of sensing & transduction, Classification,
Characteristics of transducers. Basic requirement of transducers.

Resistance Transducer: Basic principle – Potentiometer –Loading effects,

Resistance strain gauge– Types.

Inductance Transducer: - Basic principle – Linear variable differential transformer

– RVDT- types.

Capacitance Transducer: Basic principle- transducers using change in area of

plates – distance between plates- variation of dielectric constants –Types
A transducer is a device that converts one form of energy into another, such as
converting mechanical energy into electrical signals.
A sensor is a device that detects and responds to a specific input, such as light,
temperature, pressure, or motion and converts it into a measurable output.
Examples of a Sensors
Barometer: A barometer is a sensor used to measure atmospheric pressure. It detects
the changes in air pressure caused by weather conditions and converts them into
electrical signals. These signals can then be interpreted to determine whether the
pressure rises or falls, providing valuable information for weather forecasting,
aviation, and meteorological applications.
Accelerometer: An accelerometer is a sensor that measures acceleration or changes
in velocity. It is commonly used in smartphones, gaming controllers, and vehicle
stability systems. Accelerometers detect linear acceleration and tilt in multiple
directions and convert them into electrical signals. This enables the detection of
motion, orientation, and vibration, allowing for applications like screen rotation,
gesture recognition, and impact detection.
Examples of a Transducer
Thermocouple: A thermocouple is a transducer commonly used for temperature
measurement. Thermocouples are widely employed in industries, laboratories,
and HVAC systems for temperature monitoring and control.
Microphones: Microphones are another familiar example of transducers. They
convert sound waves travelling through the air into electrical signals. These
electrical signals can then be amplified, recorded, or transmitted for various
applications, including audio recording, public address systems,
telecommunication, and more.
Transducers like thermocouples and microphones demonstrate how different
forms of energy, such as temperature and sound, can be converted into electrical
signals. These examples of transducers highlight the transducer’s practical
applications and versatility.
• An accelerometer, which measures acceleration, is a type of sensor. It
detects the changes in acceleration and converts them into electrical
signals for further analysis.
• A microphone is a typical example of a transducer. It converts sound
waves into electrical signals that can be amplified, recorded, or
transmitted.
• It is important to note that the key difference between a sensor and a
transducer lies in their primary functions.
• Transducers often require an external power source, while sensors can
function using the energy from the input they detect.
LVDT ( Linear Variable Differential Transformer)
It is a common type of electromechanical transducer that
can convert the rectilinear motion of an object to which it is
coupled mechanically into a corresponding electrical signal.
* An electromotive
force EMF, is a work
done on a unit
electric charge.
Schematic diagram of a resistive potentiometer
is shown in figure.

Here, X is the total length between

t

two endpoints and the resistance

between these two endpoints are
always constant. The resistance
between sliding point and
endpoint will change with respect
to the input displacement X . 0
If V is the excitation voltage, then the output voltage V0 can be
expressed as

If the total resistance is Rt and the resistance between sliding point and the
endpoint is R0 then by voltage dividing rule V0 can be expressed as
It is clear that the output voltage in the potentiometer is proportional to the
displacement.
The output of a potentiometer is generally connected to an amplifier or a meter(measuring device).
The input impedance of this connected device acts as a load of the potentiometer and it will affect
the current between the sliding contact and the end terminal. This situation is called the loading
effect on a potentiometer.
 Capacitive Transducer
 Definition: The capacitive transducer is used for measuring the
displacement, pressure and other physical quantities.

 It is a passive transducer that means it requires external power for

operation.

 The capacitive transducer works on the principle of variable capacitances.

 The capacitance of the capacitive transducer changes because of many

reasons like overlapping of plates, change in distance between the plates
and dielectric constant.
 The capacitive transducer contains two parallel metal plates. These plates
are separated by the dielectric medium which is either air, material, gas or
liquid.

 In the normal capacitor the distance between the plates are fixed, but in
capacitive transducer the distance between them are varied.
(Working Principle)
 (Working Principle)
 (Epsilon r is the relative permittivity of the dielectric material)

 The capacitive transducer works on the principle that the

capacitance can be varied by varying the following:

**Area of plate.
**Separation between plates.
**Changing the dielectric material between plates.

 The above changes are caused by physical variable like linear

displacement, angular displacement, force, pressure and level of
liquid.
 (Working Principle)
The capacitive transducer is mainly used for measurement of linear
displacement.

The capacitive transducer uses the following three effects.

1.Variation in capacitance of transducer is because of the overlapping

area of capacitor plates.

2.The change in capacitance is because of the change in distances

between the plates.

3.The capacitance changes because of dielectric constant.

Transducer using the change in
the Area of Plates(linear
displacement)
The capacitance is directly proportional to the area of the plates. The capacitance
changes correspondingly with the change in the position of the plates.

For the measurement of displacement using capacitive transducer, one plate of

parallel plate capacitor is kept fixed while the other plate is allowed to displace.

The area of plates of parallel plate capacitor so formed at time t will be (WX).
Therefore, the capacitance at any time t is given as below.

C = [ƐoƐr(WX) / d]

Displacement X is directly proportional to capacitance C.

Hence, measurement of capacitance will directly tell us the magnitude of
displacement.
Thus, physical quantity displacement is converted into electrical quantity capacitance
which is the required function of a transducer.
Transducer using the change in the Area of
Plates(Angular displacement)

 The principle of change of capacitance with

change in area is also employed for the
measurement of angular displacement.

 Figure below shows a two-plate capacitor in

which one plate is fixed and the other can
rotate.
The angular overlapping position is Ɵ.

Since the area of entire plate is (πr2/2) for angular overlapping

of π radian, therefore, the area (A) of plate for angular
overlapping of Ɵ radian will be

A = (πr2/2π)Ɵ = Ɵr2/2

Capacitance = [ƐoƐrƟr2/ (2d)]

Capacitance is directly proportional to the angular movement.

Hence, measurement of capacitance is a direct indication of angular movement.
Capacitive transducer can only be used for measuring angular position from
0 to 180°. The graph between the capacitance and angular position is a
straight line and shown below.
Transducers Using Change in Distance between the Plates:

• A Capacitive Transducer can also be designed to respond to linear

displacement by attaching one of the plates of capacitor to the moving
object and keeping the other plate fixed.

• When the object moves, the distance between the plate changes and
hence the capacitance changes.

• The variation of capacitance with separation between the plates is

inversely proportional to the distance between the plates.
The separation between the plate is x at any time t. Hence, capacitance is given as
C = ƐA/x
The characteristics of this transducer is, thus, non-linear. Actually, it is hyperbolic as
shown below.
Transducer using the change in the
Dielectric constant