Lecture 5: DNA & RNA structure

By: Dr samar elkhateeb

lecturer of biochemistry and genetic
[email protected]
 DNA Structure

• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the genetic constituent of cells which

carries information in a coded form from cell to cell and from one
generation to the other.

• It is an organic compound that has a unique molecular structure. It is

found in all prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells.

• It is present inside the cell nucleus and mitochondria.

• The DNA molecule consists of 2 long strands

wound together in a double helix.

• In each strand the sugar molecules are joined

up by phosphate links ( 3` - 5` phosphodiester

bonds) forming a backbone for the DNA

molecule.
DNA chemically consists of:
• a) backbones made of deoxyribose sugar.
• b) phosphate groups.
• c) Nitrogenous bases (G, A, T, C) attached to the sugars.
The DNA building unit is called “Nucleotide”
 DNA Double Helix
5
O 3

3
O
P 5 P
5
O
1 G C 3
2
4 4
2 1
3 5
O
P P
5
T A 3

O
5
P 3 P 5
Nucleotide

Nucleosides can be phosphorylated by

specific kinases in the cell producing nucleotides.

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Types of Nitrogenous bases

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Chargaff’s Rule

 Adenine must pair with Thymine (A=T)

 Guanine must pair with Cytosine (G=C)

 Their amounts in a given DNA molecule will be about the same.

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Cont.
T A

G C

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 Types of DNA

• In humans a single gene can vary in length from 100 to over 1,000,000
bases.

• Genes make up less than 5% of the length of DNA molecule while the rest
is made of long highly repetitive nucleotide sequences called junk DNA
(non coding).

• Highly repeated sequences fall into 3 categories , including satellite ,

minisatellite and microsatellite
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 Cont.

• Satellite DNA.
10-15% of the DNA of human genome consists of short repeated DNA sequences which code for
ribosomal and transfer RNAs and centromeres of chromosomes.

• Minisatellite DNA:

Range from 12to 100 base pairs in length, shorter than satellites,

• Minisatellite sequences are used to identify individuals in criminal or paternity cases through
the technique of DNA fingerprinting

• Changes at certain minisatellites loci have been implicated in causing cancer and diabetes 11
• Microsatellite DNA

• The shortest sequences 1- 5 base pairs in long also known as simple

sequence repeats (SSRs) or short tandem repeats (STRs).

• It is used for the genetic fingerprinting of individuals.

• Microsatellite instability (MSI) may result in colon cancer, gastric cancer,,

ovarian cancer, hepatobiliary tract cancer, urinary tract cancer, MSI is
most prevalent in the cause of colon cancers 12
Mitochondrial DNA

• Nuclear DNA is not the only DNA in cells, but also the mitochondria
posses its own circular DNA ( not linear as nuclear DNA).

• Mitochondrial DNA (mt DNA) has 37 genes, 13 code for proteins of

the respiratory chain 22 code for Transfer RNA (tRNA) and 2 ribosomal
RNA (rRNAs).

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Mitochondrial DNA

Mitochondrial mediated diseases are in fact now being recognized in

humans, these diseases are the result of mutations in mt DNA and

are transmitted through the ovum from mother to all of her children.

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 DNA Fingerprinting

It is a test to identify and evaluate the genetic information—called DNA

(deoxyribonucleic acid)—in a person's cells.

• It is called a "fingerprint" because it is very unlikely that any two

people would have exactly the same DNA information, in the same
way that it is very unlikely that any two people would have exactly the
same physical fingerprint.
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DNA Fingerprinting

• The technique was developed in 1984 by British geneticist Alec Jeffreys,

after he noticed that certain sequences of highly variable DNA (known as
minisatellites), which do not contribute to the functions of genes, are
repeated within genes. Jeffreys recognized that each individual has a unique
pattern of minisatellites (the only exceptions being multiple individuals
from a single zygote, such as identical twins).
DNA Fingerprinting

• The procedure for creating a DNA fingerprint consists of first obtaining a

sample of cells, such as skin, hair, or blood cells, which contain DNA. The
DNA is extracted from the cells and purified. DNA was then cut at specific
points along the strand with enzymes known as restriction enzymes. The
enzymes produced fragments of varying lengths.
 DNA Fingerprinting

• Why It Is Done?
• DNA Fingerprinting can be used to:
• 1. Trace the inheritance of genetic disorders
• 2. Identify the origin of a blood, semen, or saliva sample in a criminal
investigation
• 3. Establish paternity or maternity.

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 RNA Structure.

• RNA (ribonucleic acid) : complex compound

of high molecular weight of purine and
pyrimidine ribonucleotides linked together by
3`- 5` phosphodiester bridges similar to those
in DNA.
• that functions in cellular protein synthesis
and replaces DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) as
a carrier of genetic codes in some viruses.

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How RNA differs from DNA

RNA :
• is a single stranded
• Has uracil instead of thymine.
• Ribose not deoxyribose.
• More easily damaged.
• Less easily repaired because no second strand to use to correct
mistakes on first strand.

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RNA Types

There are at least 4 types of RNA:

1. mRNA : it is the copy of the gene produced during transcription
which encodes amino acid sequence of a polypeptide
2. tRNA : serves as amino acid carrier
3. rRNA : with ribosomal proteins makes up the ribosome
4. microRNA : 21–25 nucleotides long, non-coding RNAs that regulate
gene expression at the post-transcriptional level by binding to
target genes, leading to the degradation of target mRNAs or
repression of mRNA translation
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 The genetic code

• The sequence of the nitrogenous bases along the chain forms the
genetic code that carries the precise genetic instructions
• Each codon which consists of 3 nitrogenous bases implies a specific amino
acid.
• There are 4³ = 64 different codon combinations possible with a triplet
codon of three nucleotides.
• All 64 codons are assigned to either an amino acid or a stop signal.

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Cont.

As the known amino acids are only 20, then some amino acids are encoded
by more than one codon and this is known as redundancy of the genetic
code
For example:
the amino acid glutamic acid is specified by GAA and GAG codons (difference
in the third position), the amino acid leucine is specified by UUA, UUG, CUU,
CUC, CUA, CUG codons

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Cont.

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Cont.

Characteristics of the genetic code

1. AUG is the start signal and represents
methionine
2. UAG, UAA and UGA are the stop signals
3. Universal
4. Non-overlapping
5. No spaces between codons

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Cont.

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