Oda Bultum University

Institute of Technology
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

5th year second semester

Course: Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

Prep by: Ahmed A. (Lecturer at OBUiT)

 CHAPTER 2

Antenna Characteristics
Radiation Pattern
 An antenna radiation pattern or antenna pattern is defined as “a
mathematical function or a graphical representation of the radiation
properties of the antenna as a function of space coordinates.
 Inmost cases, the radiation pattern is determined in the farfield region
and is represented as a function of the directional coordinates.
 Radiation properties include power flux density, radiation intensity, field
 Cont……
 The radiation property of most concern is the two- or three
dimensional spatial distribution of radiated energy as a function of the
observer’s position along a path or surface of constant radius.
 A convenient set of coordinates is shown in Figure1. A trace of the
received electric (magnetic) field at a constant radius is called the
amplitude field pattern.
 On the other hand, a graph of the spatial variation of the power density
along a constant radius is called an amplitude power pattern
 Cont…….
 Often the field and power patterns are normalized with respect to their
maximum value, yielding normalized field and power patterns.
 Also, the power pattern is usually plotted on a logarithmic scale or
more commonly in decibels (dB). This scale is usually desirable
because a logarithmic scale can accentuate in more details those parts
of the pattern that have very low values, which later we will refer to as
minor lobes.
 Cont…….
For an antenna, the

 Field pattern (in linear scale) typically represents a plot of the

magnitude of the electric or magnetic field as a function of the angular
space.
 Power pattern (in linear scale) typically represents a plot of the square
of the magnitude of the electric or magnetic field as a function of the
angular space.
 Power pattern (in dB) represents the magnitude of the electric or
 Cont…….
In general, three electric-field components (Er, Eθ , Eφ)

Figure 1. Coordinate system for antenna analysis .

 Cont……..
To demonstrate this, the two-dimensional normalized field pattern
(plotted in linear scale), power pattern (plotted in linear scale), and
power pattern (plotted on a logarithmic dB scale) of a 10-element linear
antenna array of isotropic sources, with a spacing of d = 0.25λ between
the elements, are shown in Figure 2.
In this and subsequent patterns, the plus (+) and minus (−) signs in the
lobes indicate the relative polarization of the amplitude between the
various lobes, which changes (alternates) as the nulls are crossed.
 Cont……..

To find the points where the pattern achieves its half-power (−3 dB
points), relative to the maximum value of the pattern, you set the value of
the
 Field pattern at 0.707 value of its maximum, as shown in Figure 2(a)

 Power pattern (in a linear scale) at its 0.5 value of its maximum, as
shown in Figure 2 (b)
 Power pattern (in dB) at −3 dB value of its maximum, as shown in
Figure 2 (c).
 Cont……..

(a) Field pattern (in linear scale) (b) Power pattern (in linear scale)
Cont……..

(c) Power pattern (in dB)

 Radiation Pattern Lobes
 Various parts of a radiation pattern are referred to as lobes, which may
be sub classified into major or main, minor, side, and back lobes.
 A radiation lobe is a “portion of the radiation pattern bounded by
regions of relatively weak radiation intensity.”
 Figure 3(a) demonstrates a symmetrical three dimensional polar
pattern with a number of radiation lobes.
 Some are of greater radiation intensity than others, but all are
classified as lobes.
Cont……
 Cont……..

Figure 3 (a) Radiation lobes and beamwidth of an antenna pattern. (b)

 Cont…...
 A major lobe (also called main beam) is defined as “the radiation lobe
containing the direction of maximum radiation.” In Figure 3 the major
lobe is pointing in the θ = 0 direction.
 A minor lobe is any lobe except a major lobe. In Figures 3 (a) and (b) all
the lobes with the exception of the major can be classified as minor lobes.
 A side lobe is “a radiation lobe in any direction other than the intended
lobe.” (Usually a side lobe is adjacent to the main lobe and occupies the
hemisphere in the direction of the main beam.)
 Cont……
 A back lobe is “a radiation lobe whose axis makes an angle of
approximately 180◦ with respect to the beam of an antenna.”
 Usually it refers to a minor lobe that occupies the hemisphere in a
direction opposite to that of the major (main) lobe.
 Minor lobes usually represent radiation in undesired directions, and
they should be minimized.
 Side lobes are normally the largest of the minor lobes.
 RADIATION POWER DENSITY
Electromagnetic waves are used to transport information through a wireless
medium or a guiding structure, from one point to the other.
The quantity used to describe the power associated with an electromagnetic wave
is the instantaneous Poynting vector defined as;

𝑾=𝑬×H

where ; 𝑾 = instantaneous Poynting vector , ( 𝑾/ 𝒎𝟐)

𝑬 = instantaneous electric-field intensity, ( 𝑽/ 𝒎)

𝑯 = instantaneous magnetic-field intensity , ( 𝑨/ 𝒎)

 Cont……
The total power crossing a closed surface can be obtained by integrating the
normal component of the Poynting vector over the entire surface.

For time-varying fields, the time average power density (average Poynting
vector);
The average power radiated by an antenna (radiated power) can be written as
 RADIATION INTENSITY
Radiation intensity in a given direction is defined as ” the power radiated from
an antenna per unit solid angle”.
The radiation intensity is a far-field parameter, and it can be obtained by
simply multiplying the radiation density by the square of the distance. It is
given by;
Where ; 𝑈 = radiation intensity, (W/unit solid angle)

𝑊𝑟𝑎𝑑 = radiation density, (𝑾/𝒎𝟐)

 Cont……
The total power radiated by the antenna is obtained by integrating the radiation
intensity over the entire solid angle of 4 𝜋 . Thus;

where 𝑑Ω = element of solid angle = sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙

For an isotropic source, 𝑈 will be independent of the angles 𝜃 and 𝜙. Thus can
be written as,
The radiation intensity of an isotropic source as;
 Directivity
Directive of an antenna is defined as “the ratio of the radiation intensity in a
given direction from the antenna to the radiation intensity averaged over all
directions”.
The average radiation intensity is equal to the total power radiated divided by 4𝜋.
In mathematical form ;
If the direction is not specified, it implies the direction of maximum radiation
intensity (maximum directivity, 𝐷0,) expressed as;
 Cont…..
Directivity (maximum directivity, 𝐷0,) : It is defined as the ratio of the
maximum radiation intensity to the average radiation intensity.

Gain of antenna
Gain of an antenna is defined as “the ratio of the radiation intensity, in a given

direction, to the radiation intensity that would be obtained if the power accepted
by the antenna were radiated isotropically.

The radiation intensity corresponding to isotropically radiated power is equal to

the power accepted (input) by the antenna divided by 4 𝜋 .

 Cont……

In most cases we deal with relative gain, which is defined as “ the ratio of the
power gain in a given direction to the power gain of a reference antenna in its
referenced direction.” The power input must be the same for both antennas.
The reference antenna is usually a dipole, horn or any other antenna whose gain
can be calculated or it is known. However, the reference antenna is a lossless
isotropic source. Thus,
 Cont……
The total power radiated, 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑, by the antenna is related to the input power,
𝑃𝑖𝑛, by;

where 𝜅 = antenna efficiency factor.

The gain (𝐺) of an antenna is an actual or realized quantity which is less than
the directivity (𝐷) due to ohmic losses in the antenna or its radome (if it is
enclosed). The maximum value of the gain is related to maximum directivity;
 Cont……

ANTENNA EFFICIENCY

Antenna Efficiency is defined as the ratio of power radiated by the antenna to

the total input power supplied by the antenna. It is denoted by 𝜅. It value lies
between 0 ≤ 𝜅 ≤ 1.
Cont…….
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End of Chapter 2

Thank you