Chapter 3

Cellular Concept

1 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18

 Sections
3.1. Introduction
3.2. Frequency Reuse
3.3. Channel Assignment Strategies
3.4. Handoff Strategies
3.5. Interference and System
Capacity
3.6. Trunking and Grade of Service
3.7. Improving Capacity in Cellular
Systems
2 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
 3.1. Introduction
The design objective of early mobile
systems was to achieve a large coverage
area by using a single, high powered
transmitter with an antenna mounted on a
tall tower.
The approach achieved very good coverage.
The disadvantage is the impossibility of
frequency reuse.
Any attempts to achieve frequency reuse
would result in interference.
The bell mobile system in New York city in
1970s only support a maximum of 12
simultaneous calls over a 1000 square
3
miles.
WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
Cont…
The figure below shows cellular Concept

4 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18

 Cont…
Increased demand for mobile services
became imperative to restructure the radio
telephone system to achieve high capacity
with limited radio spectrum while at the
same time covering very large areas.
The cellular concept was a major
breakthrough in solving the problem of
spectral congestion and user capacity.
The concept is replacing a single high
power transmitter (large cell) with many
low power transmitters (small cells).
Each base station is allocated a portion of
the total number of channel available to
5 the entire system.
WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
 Cont…
Nearby base stations are assigned
different groups of channels.
This fundamental principle is the
foundation for all modern wireless
communication systems.
The concept allows mobile within a
country or continent to be
manufactured with the same set of
channels.
Any type of mobile can be used
6 anywhere
WireLess networking within the region. 01/31/25 07:18
 Reuse
Cellular radio systems rely on an
intelligent allocation and reuse of
channels throughout a coverage region.
Each cellular base station is allocated a
group of radio channels to be used
within a small geographic area called a
cell.
Base stations in adjacent cells are
assigned channel groups which contain
completely different channels than
neighboring cells.
The base station antennas are designed
to achieve the desired coverage within
7 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
the particular cell.
 Cont…
The group of channels used to cover
different cells that are separated
from one another by distances large
enough to keep interference levels
within tolerable limits.
The design process of selecting and
allocating channel groups for all of
the cellular base stations within a
system is called frequency reuse or
frequency planning.
The figure below shows the concept
8 ofWireLess
cellularnetworking frequency reuse. 01/31/25 07:18
9 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
 Cont…
The hexagonal cell shape is conceptual and
a simplistic model of the radio coverage.
It has been universally adopted since the
hexagon permits easy and manageable
analysis of a cellular system.
The actual radio coverage of a cell is known
as the footprint and is determined from
field measurements or propagation
prediction models.
The real footprint is amorphous in nature.
A regular cell shape is needed for
systematic system design and adaptation
for future growth.
10 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
 Cont…
Hexagon closely approximates a
circular radiation pattern.
Choosing a circle to represent the
coverage area might seem natural.
Adjacent cells cannot be overlaid
upon a map without leaving gaps
or creating overlapping regions.
Omnidirectional antennas are
used in center-excited cells.
Sectored directional antennas are
used in corner-excited cells.
11 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
 Cont…
Consider a cellular system which has
a total of S duplex channels.
Each cell is allocated a group of k
channels (k<S).
S channels are divided among N cells

into unique and disjoint channel

groups.
Total number of available radio
channels can be expressed as S = kN.
N cells which collectively use the

complete set of available frequencies

12 isWireLess
called a cluster.
networking 01/31/25 07:18
 Cont…
If a cluster is replicated M times within the
system, the total umber of duplex channels,
C, measure of capacity is given by:
C = MkN = MS
The capacity of cellular system is directly
proportional to the number of times cluster
replicated in a fixed service area.
The factor N is called the cluster size and is
typical equal to 4, 7 and 12.
If the cluster size N is reduced while the
cell size is kept constant, more clusters are
required to cover a given area, and hence
more capacity (a large value of C) is
13
achieved.
WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
 Cont…
A larger cluster size causes the ratio
between the cell radius and the distance
between co-channel cell to decrease,
leading to weaker co-channel
interference.
The value for N is a function of how
much interference a mobile or base
station can tolerate while maintaining a
sufficient quality of communications.
The smallest possible value of N is
desirable in order to maximize capacity
over a given coverage area.
1/N is the frequency reuse factor of a
14 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
cellular system.
 Cont…
Each cell within a cluster 1/N of the
total available channels in the system
is assigned.
The number of cells (N) per cluster can
only have values which satisfy
equation.
N = i2 + ij + j2
where: i and j are non-negative
integers.
To find the nearest co-channel
neighbors of a particular cell: move i
cells along any chain of hexagons and
then turn 60 degrees counter-
15
clockwise and move j cells.
WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
 Cont…
The figure below shows example of co-channel cells
for N = 19, i = 3, and j = 2. (19-cell reuse example)

16 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18

 Cont…
Example:

Total 33 MHz b/w allocated to a FDD

cellular system which uses 25 kHz
simplex channels to provide full
duplex voice and control channels.
Find the number of channels available
per cell if a system uses: a) four-cell
reuse, b) 7-cell reuse c) 12-cell reuse.
If 1 MHz of the allocated spectrum is
dedicated to control channels, find an
equitable distribution of control
channels & voice channels.
17 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
 Cont…
 Solution
Total b/w = 33 MHz
Channel b/w = 2 X 25khz = 50
khz
Total available channels S = 33,
000/50 = 660 channels
For N=4,
Total no of ch per cell k = 660/4
= 165 channels
For N = 7,
Total no of ch per cell k = 660/7
= 95 channels
For N = 12,
18  K = 660/12 = 55
WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
 Cont…
1MHz for control channels ie. 1000/50 =
20 control channels. So only 640
channels (660-20) would be allotted for
voice
For N = 4,
5 control ch + 160 voice ch per cell
In practice each cell 1 control channel
and 160 voice channels.
For N =7,
4 cells with (3 control ch + 92 voice
ch) & 2 cells with (3 control + 90 voice
ch) & 1 cell with (2 control ch + 92
voice channels)
In practice each cell with 1 control ch
and 4 cells with 91 voice ch and 3 cells
19 with
WireLess 92 voice ch
networking 01/31/25 07:18
 Cont…
For N = 12
8 cells with 2 CCh and 53 voice
channels
4 cells with 1 CCh and 54 voice
channels
In practice each cell 1 CCh , 8
cells with 53 voice channels and 4
cells with 54 voice channels.

20 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18

 3.3. Channel Assignment
Strategies
Increase capacity and minimize
interference
Suitable frequency re-use scheme
Ch assignment strategies
1. fixed or
2. dynamic
Fixed scheme can borrow if the cell is
full (blocked)
A cell is allowed to borrow channels
from a neighboring cell if all of its
own channels are occupied.
MSC-Mobile Switching Center does
21 this job
WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
 Cont…
Dynamic channel assignment
requires MSC to collect real-time
data on channel occupancy, traffic
distribution, and RSSI (radio signal
strength indication)
This increases the storage and
computational load on the system
but provides the advantage of
increased channel utilization and
decreased probability of a blocked
call.
22 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
3.4. Handoff
Strategies
Handoff:- is transferring of a call when
a mobile moves into a different cell
while a conversation is in progress.
Many handoff strategies prioritize
handoff requests over call initiation
requests.
Handoff must be performed successfully
and as infrequently as possible.
Imperceptible to the users.
System designers must specify an
optimum signal level to initiate a
23 handoff.
WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
 Cont…
Signal level is specified as the minimum
usable signal for acceptable voice quality
at the base station receiver. (-100dBm - -
90dBm)
A slightly stronger signal level is used as a
threshold at which a handoff is made.
This margin Δ = prhandoff – prminimum
usable , cannot be large or to small.
If too large, unnecessary handoffs which
burden MSC
If too small insufficient time to complete a
handoff before a call is lost due to weak
24 signal
WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
Cont…
The figure below shows a handoff situation

25 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18

 Cont…
The time over which a call
maintained with a cell, without
handoff, is called dwell time.
Factors that govern dwell time:
1. Propagation
2. Interference
3. Distance b/n subscriber and BTS
In 1st G handoff is done by MSC
and signal strength measurement
by BTS.
In 2G handoff decisions are mobile
26 assisted.
WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
 Prioritizing Handoffs
Guard channel concept – fraction of the total
available channels in a cell is reserved
exclusively for handoff requests.
 Disadvantage – reducing the total carried
traffic.
 In dynamic channel assignment strategy
offer efficient spectrum utilization which
minimize the number of required guard
channels.
Queuing of handoff requests is another
method to decrease the probability of forced
termination of a call.
Tradeoff b/n the decrease in probability of
27 forced
WireLesstermination
networking and total carried traffic.
01/31/25 07:18
 Practical handoff considerations
Problems arise when attempting to
design for a wide range of mobile
velocities.
MSC quickly burdened if high speed
users are constantly being passed b/n
very small cells.
Umbrella cell approach is used to
provide large area coverage to high
speed users.
The speed of each user is estimated by
BTS or MSC.
The following figure shows Umbrella
28
cell approach.
WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
29 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
 Cont…
Cell dragging is another practical
handoff problem in microcell
system.
Cell dragging creates a potential
interference and traffic
management problems.
Dragging occurs in an urban
environment when there is a line-
of-sight (LOS).

30 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18

3.5. Interference and System
Capacity
Interference is major limiting factor in
the performance of cellular radio
systems.
Sources:
 Mobile stations in the same cell
 Call in progress in a neighboring cell
 Base stations operating in the same
frequency band
 Non-cellular system which
inadvertently leaks energy into the
31
cellular frequency band.
WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
 Cont..
Two major types of system-
generated cellular interferences
are:
1. Co-channel interference
2. Adjacent channel interference

32 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18

Co-channel interference and System Capacity
Co-channel cells – cells that use the
same set of frequencies in a given
coverage area.
co-channel interference
 To reduce interference co-channel
cells must be physically separated by
a minimum distance to provide
sufficient isolation due to propagation.
Co-channel interference ratio (Q) is a
function of the radius of the cell (R)
and the distance b/n centers of the
33 nearest co-channel cells (D).
WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
 Cont…
Q = D/R =
3N
 Increasing the ratio increases the spatial
separation b/n co-channel cells.
 Let i0 be the number of co-channel interfering
cells.
 The signal to interference ratio (S/I, SIR) is:
S S
 i0
I
I i 1
i

 Where S is the desired signal power from the

desired BS.
 Ii is the interference power caused by the ith
34 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
interfering co-channel cell BS.
 Cont…
Propagation measurements in a mobile
radio channel show that the average
received signal strength at any point
decays as a power law of the distance of
separation b/n a transmitter and receiver.
The average received power pr at a
distance d from the transmitting antenna
n
is approximated
 d  by:
pr  p0   or
 d0 
 d 
pr dBm   p0 dBm  10n log 
 d0 
35 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
 Cont…
Where p0 is the power received at a
close-in reference point in the far
field region of the antenna at a
small distance d0 from the
transmitting antenna.
n is the path loss exponent.
If Di is the distance of the ith
interferer from the mobile
The received power at a given
mobile due to the ith interfering cell
36 will be
WireLess proportional to (Di)-n. 01/31/25 07:18
networking
Cont…
The path loss exponent typically ranges b/n 2
and 4 in urban cellular systems.
When the transmit power of each BS is equal
and the path loss exponent is the same
throughout the coverage area, S/I for mobile
is: n
S R
 i0
I
 i
( D
i 1
) n

Considering the 1st layer of interfering cells,

if all interfering BSs are equidistant from the
desired BS and if this distance is equal to D
b/n cell centers, then above equation is
simplified to:
37 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
 Cont…
n n
S ( D / R) ( 3N )
 
I i0 i0
Example: observe the following figure for N=7
and n=4. SIR for worst case can be
approximated as:
S R 4

I 2( D  R )  4  2( D  R )  4  2 D  4
or
S 1
 4 4 4
I 2(Q  1)  2(Q  1)  2Q
38 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
 Cont…

39 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18

 Cont…
Example:

If a signal to interference ratio of 15

dB is required for satisfactory forward
channel performance of a cellular
system, what is the frequency reuse
factor and cluster size that should be
used for maximum capacity if the path
loss exponent is (a) n = 4 , (b) n = 3?
Assume that there are 6 co-channels
cells in the first tier, and all of them
are at the same distance from the
mobile. Use suitable approximations.
40 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
 Cont…
Solution:

(a) n = 4
First, let us consider a 7-cell reuse
pattern. The co-channel reuse
ratio Q = 4.583. The signal-to-
noise interference ratio is given by
S/I = (1/6)x(4.583)4 = 75.3 = 18.66
dB. Since this is greater than the
minimum required S/I, N = 7 can
be used.
41 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
 Cont…
b) n = 3
First, let us consider a 7-cell reuse pattern.
The signal-to-interference ratio is given by
S/I = (l/6)x(4.583)3 = 16.04 = 12.05 dB.
Since this is less than the minimum
required S/I, we need to use a larger N.
The next possible value of N is 12, (i = j =
2). co-channel ratio is Q = 6.0.
The signal-to-interference ratio is given by
S/I = (1/6) x (6)3 = 36 = 15.56 dB.
Since this is greater than the minimum
required S/I, N = 12 can be used.
42 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
 Adjacent Channel
Interference
Interference resulting from signals
which are adjacent in frequency to
the desired signal.
Results from imperfect receiver
filters which allow nearby
frequencies to leak into the
passband.
near-far effect
Minimized through careful filtering
and channel assignments.
a cell need not be assigned channels
43 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
which are all adjacent in frequency.
 Cont…
keeping the frequency separation between
each channel in a given cell as large as
possible.
By sequentially assigning successive
channels in the frequency band to different
cells.
prevent a secondary source of adjacent
channel interference by avoiding the use
of adjacent channels in neighboring cell
sites.
If the frequency reuse factor is small, the
separation between adjacent channels may
not be sufficient to keep the interference
44 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
level within tolerable limits.
Power Control for Reducing Interference
Power levels transmitted by every
subscriber unit are under constant
control by the serving base stations.
ensures that each mobile transmits
the smallest power necessary to
maintain a good quality link on the
reverse channel.
helps prolong battery life.
dramatically reduces the reverse
channel S/I in the system.
45 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
 3.6. Trunking and Grade of
Service
Cellular radio systems rely on trunking to
accommodate a large number of users in a
limited radio spectrum.
Allows a large number of users to share
the relatively small number of channels in
a cell.
Providing access to each user, on demand,
from a pool of available channels
Each user is allocated a channel on a per
call basis
upon termination of the call, the previously
occupied channel is immediately returned
46
to WireLess
the pool of available channels. 01/31/25 07:18
networking
 Cont…
Trunking exploits the statistical
behavior of users so that a fixed
number of channels or circuits may
accommodate a large, random user
community.
In a trunked mobile radio system,
when a particular user requests
service and all of the radio channels
are already in use, the user is blocked,
or denied access to the system.
a queue may be used to hold the
requesting users until a channel
becomes available.
47 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
Cont…
The grade of service (GOS) is a
measure of the ability of a user to
access a trunked system during the
busiest hour.
GOS is a benchmark used to define
the desired performance of a
particular trunked system.
GOS is typically given as the
likelihood that a call is blocked, or the
likelihood of a call experiencing a
delay greater than a certain queuing
48 time.
WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
 Cont…
Definitions used in trunking theory:
 Set-up Time: The time required to
allocate a trunked radio channel to a
requesting user.
 Blocked Call: Call which cannot be
completed at time of request, due to
congestion. Also referred to as a lost call.
 Holding Time: Average duration of a
typical call. Denoted by H (in seconds).
 Traffic Intensity: Measure of channel time
utilization, the average channel
occupancy measured in Erlangs. A
dimensionless quantity used to measure
the time utilization of single or multiple
49 channels.
WireLess networkingDenoted by A. 01/31/25 07:18
 Cont…
 Load: Traffic intensity across the
entire trunked radio system,
measured in Erlangs.
 Grade of Service (GOS): A measure of
congestion which is specified as the
probability of a call being blocked
(for Erlang B), or the probability of
a call being delayed beyond a
certain amount of time (for Erlang
C).
 Request Rate: The average number
of call requests per unit time.
50 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
Denoted by λ seconds . -1
 Cont…
The traffic intensity offered by each
user is equal to the call request rate
multiplied by the holding time.
Each user generates a traffic
intensity of Au Erlangs given by:
Au = λH
Where H is the average duration of a
call and λ is the average number of
call requests per unit time.
For a system containing U users and
an unspecified number of channels,
51
the total
WireLess offered traffic intensity
networking A, is
01/31/25 07:18
 Cont…
If the traffic is equally distributed
among the channels the traffic
intensity per channel, is given as:
Ac = U Au./C
There are two types of trunked
systems:
1. blocked calls cleared
2. Blocked Calls Delayed

52 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18

Cont…
1. blocked calls cleared
 No queuing for call requests
 If no channels are available, the
requesting user is blocked.
 free to try again later
 The Erlang B formula
 The Erlang B formula determines
the probability that a call is
blocked and is a measure of the
GOS for a trunked system which
provides no queuing for blocked
53 calls.
WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
 Cont…
The Erlang B formula is given by:

AC
pr (blocking )  C C! k GOS
A
 where C is thek 0number
 k! of trunked
channels and A is the total offered
traffic.
 The capacity of a trunked radio
system where blocked calls are lost is
tabulated for various values of GOS
and numbers of channels in the
54
following
WireLess networking
Table. 01/31/25 07:18
 Cont…

55 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18

56 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
 Cont…
2. Blocked Calls Delayed
 queue is provided to hold calls
which are blocked.
 If no channels are immediately
available the call is delayed
 GOS is defined as the probability
that a call is blocked after waiting a
specific length of time in the queue.
 The likelihood of a call not having
immediate access to a channel is
determined by the Erlang C formula.
 Erlang C formula is:
57 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
 Cont…
C
A
pr[ delay  0]  C 1 k
 A  A
AC  C! 1  
 C  k 0 k!
The probability that the delayed call is forced
to wait more than t seconds is given by the
probability that a call is delayed, multiplied
by the conditional probability that the delay
is greater than t seconds.
The GOS of a trunked system where blocked
calls are delayed is hence given by:
pr[delay  t ]  pr[delay  0] pr[delay  t | delay  0]
 pr[delay  0] exp( (C  A)t / H )
58 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
 Cont…
 The average delay D for all calls in a
queued system is given by:

H
D  pr[delay  0]
C A
 where the average delay for those
calls which are queued is given by
H/(C—A).
 Erlang C formulas are plotted in
graphical form in the following
figure.
59 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
 Cont…

60 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18

Cont…
Example 1:

How many users can be supported for

0.5% blocking probability for the
following number of trunked channels
in a blocked calls cleared system? (a)
1, (b) 5, (c) 10, (d) 20, (e) 100.
Assume each user generates 0.1
Erlangs of traffic.
Solution:
From Erlang B Table we can find the total
capacity in Erlangs for the 0.5% GOS for
different numbers of channels. By using the
relation A = UAu, we can obtain the total
number of users that can be supported in the
61 system.
WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
Cont…
(a) Given C = 1 , Au= 0.1, GOS = 0.005
From Erlang B figure, we obtain A =
0.005.
total number of users, U = A/Au =
0.005/0.1 = 0.05 users.
But, actually one user could be
supported on one channel. So, U = 1.
(b) Given C = 5, Au = 0.1, GOS = 0.005
From table, we obtain A = 1.13.
total number of users, U = A/Au =
62
1.13/0.1
WireLess
≈
networking
11 users. 01/31/25 07:18
 Cont…
(c) Given C = 10, Au = 0.1 , GOS = 0.005
From table, we obtain A = 3.96.
total number of users, U = A/Au =
3.96/0.1 ≈ 39 users.
(d) Given C = 20, Au = 0.1 , GOS = 0.005
from table, we obtain A = 11.10.
total number of users, U = A/Au =
11.1/0.1 = 111 users.
(e) Given C = 100, Au= 0.1 , GOS =
0.005, From table, we obtain A = 80.9.
total number of users, U = A/Au =
63 80.9/0.1 = 809 users.
WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
Cont…
Example 2:
An urban area has a population of 2 million
residents. Three competing trunked mobile
networks (systems A, B, and C) provide
cellular service in this area. System A has 394
cells with 19 channels each, system B has 98
cells with 57 channels each, and system C has
49 cells, each with 100 channels. Find the
number of users that can be supported at 2%
blocking, if each user averages 2 calls per
hour at an average call duration of 3 minutes.
Assuming that all three trunked systems are
operated at maximum capacity, compute the
percentage market penetration of each
64 cellular provider.
WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
 Cont…
 Solution:
System A
Given:
Probability of blocking = 2% = 0.02
Number of channels per cell used in the
system, C = 19
Traffic intensity per user, A u = λH = 2 x
(3/60) = 0.1 Erlangs
For GOS = 0.02 and C = 19, from the Erlang
B chart, the total carried traffic, A, is obtained as
12 Erlangs.
Therefore, the number of users that can be
supported per cell is U = A/Au = 12/0.1 = 120.
Since there are 394 cells, the total number
of' subscribers that can be supported by System
65 A is equal
WireLess to 120 x 394 = 47280.
networking 01/31/25 07:18
 Cont…
System B
Given:
Probability of blocking = 2% = 0.02
Number of channels per cell used in the
system, C = 57
Traffic intensity per user, Au = λH = 2 x
(3/60) = 0.1 Erlangs
For GOS = 0.02 and C = 57, from the Erlang
B chart, the total carried traffic, A, is obtained as
45 Erlangs.
Therefore, the number of users that can be
supported per cell is U = A/Au = 45/0.1 = 450.
Since there are 98 cells, the total number of
subscribers that can be supported by System B is
66 equal tonetworking
WireLess 450 x 98 = 44100. 01/31/25 07:18
 Cont…
System C
Given:
Probability of blocking = 2% = 0.02
Number of channels per cell used in the
system, C = 100
Traffic intensity per user, = λH = 2 x
(3/60) = 0.1 Erlangs
For GOS = 0.02 and C = 100, from the
Erlang B chart, the total carried traffic, A is
obtained as 88 Erlangs.
Therefore, the number of users that can
be supported per cell is U = A/Au = 88/0.1 =
880.
Since there are 49 cells, the total number
of subscribers that can be supported by
WireLess networking
67 System C is equal to 880 x 49 = 4312001/31/25 07:18
Cont…
Therefore, total number of cellular subscribers
that can be supported by these three systems
are 47280 + 44100 + 43120 = 134500 users.
Since there are 2 million residents in the
given urban area and the total number of
cellular subscribers in System A is equal to
47280, the percentage market penetration is
equal to 47280/2000000 = 2.36%
market penetration of System B is equal to
44100/2000000 = 2.205%
market penetration of System C is equal to
43120/2000000 = 2356%
The market penetration of the three systems
combined is equal to 134500/2000000 =
68 6.725%
WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
 Cont…
 Example 3:

A certain city has an area of 1,300

square miles and is covered by a cellular
system using a 7-cell reuse pattern. Each
cell has a radius of 4 miles and the city is
allocated 40 MHz of spectrum with a full
duplex channel bandwidth of 60 kHz.
Assume a GOS of 2% for an Erlang B
system is specified. If the offered traffic
per user is 0.03 Erlangs, compute
(a)the number of cells in the service area
(b)the number of channels per cell
(c)traffic intensity of each cell
(d)the maximum carried traffic
(e)the total number of users that can be served for 2%
GOS,
(f)the number of mobiles per channel and
(g)the
69 theoretical
WireLess networking maximum number of users that could
01/31/25 be
07:18
served at one time by the system.
 Cont…
Solution:

(a)Given:
The total coverage area = 1300
miles
Cell radius = 4 miles
The area of a cell is 2.5981R2 =
2.5981 x (4)2 = 41.57 sqmi.
Hence, the total number of cells
are = 1300/41.57 = 31 cells.

70 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18

 Cont…
(b) The total number of channels per cell
(C) = allocated spectrum / (channel width x
frequency reuse factor) = 40, 000/ (60 x 7)
= 95 channels/cell.
(c) Given: C = 95, and GOS = 0.02, From the
Erlang B chart, we have traffic intensity per
cell A = 84 Erlangs/cell.
(d) Maximum carried traffic = number of
cells x traffic intensity per cell = 31 x 84 =
2604 Erlangs.
(e) Given traffic per user = 0.03 Erlangs,
total number of users = total traffic / traffic
per user = 2604 / 0.03 = 86,800 users.
71 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
Cont…
(f) Number of mobiles per channel
= number of users/number of
channels = 86,800 / 666 = 130
mobiles/channel
(g) The theoretical maximum
number of served mobiles is the
number of available channels in
the system (all channels occupied)
= C x Nc = 95 x 31 = 2945 users
which is 3.4% of the customer
72
base.
WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
Cont…
Example 4:

A hexagonal cell within a 4-cell system has

a radius of 1.387 km. A total of 60 channels
are used within the entire system. If the
load per user is 0.029 Erlangs, and λ = 1
call/hour, compute the following for an
Erlang C system that has a 5% probability
of a delayed call:
(a) How many users per square kilometer
will this system support?
(b) What is the probability that a delayed
call will have to wait for more than l0
seconds?
(c) What is the probability that a call will be
73 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
delayed for more than 10 seconds?
 Cont…
Solution:

Given,
Cell radius, R = 1.387 km
Area covered per cell is 2.598 x
(1.387)2 = 5 sq km
Number of cells per cluster = 4
Total number of channels = 60
Therefore, number of channels per
cell = 60 / 4 = 15 channels.

74 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18

 Cont…
(a) From Erlang C chart, for 5% probability
of delay with C = 15, traffic intensity = 9.0
Erlangs.
Therefore, number of users = total traffic
intensity / traffic per user =9.0/0.029 = 310
users = 310 users/5 sq km = 62 users/sq
km.
(b) Given λ = 1 , holding time H = Au/λ =
0.029 hour = 104.4 seconds.
The probability that a delayed call will have
to wait for more than 10 s is
Pr[delay>t|delay] = exp(—(C-A)t/H)
WireLess networking
= exp(—(15—9.0)10/l04.4) =
75 01/31/25 07:18
56.29 %
Cont…
(c) Given pr[delay >0] = 5% = 0.05
Probability that a call is delayed
more than 10 seconds,
Pr[delay> 0]
=pr[delay>0]pr[delay>t|delay]
= 0.05 x 0.5629 =
2.81 %

76 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18

3.7. Improving Capacity in Cellular
Systems
The number of channels assigned
to a cell eventually becomes
insufficient to support the required
number of users.
Cellular design techniques are
needed to provide more channels
per unit coverage area.
Techniques:
cell splitting
sectoring and
77  WireLess networking
coverage zone approaches 01/31/25 07:18
Cell Splitting
Process of subdividing a congested cell
into smaller cells.
Each cell with its own base station and a
corresponding reduction in antenna
height and transmitter power.
Increases the number of times that
channels are reused.
By defining new cells which have a
smaller radius than the original cells
and by installing these smaller cells
(called microcells) between the existing
cells.
78 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
The following figure shows cell splitting.
Cont…

79 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18

 Sectoring
capacity improvement is achieved by
reducing the number of cells in a cluster
and thus increasing the frequency reuse.
necessary to reduce the relative
interference without decreasing the
transmit power.
The co-channel interference in a cellular
system may be decreased by replacing a
single omni-directional antenna at the
base station by several directional
antennas, each radiating within a
specified sector.
80 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
Cont…
By using directional antennas, a
given cell will receive interference
and transmit with only a fraction
of the available co-channel cells.
The technique for decreasing co-
channel interference and thus
increasing system capacity by
using directional antennas is
called sectoring.
The factor by which the co-channel
interference is reduced depends
81
on the amount of sectoring used.
WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
 Cont…

A cell is normally partitioned into

three 1200 sectors or six 60°
sectors.
Sectoring improves S/I.
The following figure shows 1200
sectoring of N = 7.

82 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18

 Cont…

83 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18

 A Novel Microcell Zone Concept
The increased number of handoffs
required when sectoring is employed
results in an increased load on the
switching and control link elements of
the mobile system.
A solution to this problem was proposed
based on a microcell concept for 7 cell
reuse.
Figure below shows each of the three (or
possibly more) zone sites (represented
as Tx/Rx) are connected to a single base
station and share the same radio
equipment.
zones are connected by coaxial cable,
fiber-optic
WireLess networking
cable, or microwave link to
84
the base station. 01/31/25 07:18
 Cont…

WireLess networking
The Zone Cell Concept
85 01/31/25 07:18
Cont…
Multiple zones and a single base station
make up a cell.
As a mobile travels within the cell, it is
served by the zone with the strongest
signal.
any base station channel may be assigned
to any zone by the base station.
As a mobile travels from one zone to
another within the cell, it retains the
same channel.
unlike in sectoring, a handoff is not
required at the MSC when the mobile
travels between zones within the cell.
The base station simply switches the
86 channel to a different zone site.
WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
Cont…
a given channel is active only in the particular
zone in which the mobile is traveling.
The channels are distributed in time and space by
all three zones and are also reused in co-channel
cells in the normal fashion.
The advantage of the zone cell technique is that
while the cell maintains a particular coverage
radius, the co-channel interference in the cellular
system is reduced since a large central base
station is replaced by several lower powered
transmitters (zone transmitters) on the edges of
the cell.
Decreased co-channel interference improves the
signal quality and also leads to an increase in
capacity without the degradation in trunking
87 efficiency.
WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18
 Summary
Handoff
Frequency reuse
Trunking efficiency
Frequency planning
capacity of a cellular system
Channel assignments
Grade of Service

88 WireLess networking 01/31/25 07:18