UNIT I - Fundamental of

data communication &

network topology
1.1 Data Communication & its
Characteristic
 Data Communication refers to the process of exchanging data or information
between two or more devices or systems using a transmission medium (e.g.,
cables, radio waves).
 The primary goal of data communication is to enable reliable and efficient
transfer of data between a sender and a receiver.
 It involves:
1. Sender: The device or entity that initiates communication.
2. Receiver: The device or entity that receives the transmitted data.
3. Transmission Medium: The physical or wireless medium through which the
data is transferred.
4. Message: The actual data (text, audio, video, or images) being communicated.
5. Protocol: A set of rules that govern how the communication takes place.

Prof.Jagtap S.N
 Characteristics of Data Communication
1. Delivery
• The data must be delivered to the correct destination (receiver).
• It involves ensuring that data is not lost during transmission and reaches the
intended device or user.
2. Accuracy
• Data should be transmitted without errors or corruption. Any errors in transmission
(due to noise or interference) must be detected and corrected.
• Error detection and correction techniques (e.g., parity bits, checksums) are often
employed to maintain accuracy.
3. Timeliness
• Data should be delivered in a timely manner, especially for time-sensitive
applications like video streaming or voice communication.
• Latency (delay in data delivery) must be minimized to ensure real-time
communication when required.
4. Jitter
• Jitter refers to the variation in time delay during the transmission of data packets.
• Consistent timing is crucial for real-time applications like video conferencing or Prof.Jagtap S.N
online gaming to avoid disruptions.
 5. Bandwidth
• Bandwidth refers to the maximum amount of data that can be transmitted in a
specific period of time.
• Higher bandwidth allows faster and more efficient communication.
6. Transmission Modes
•The medium (e.g., wired, wireless, or optical fiber) plays a crucial role in the
quality and efficiency of data communication.
•Transmission Medium
The medium (e.g., wired, wireless, or optical fiber) plays a crucial role in the quality and
efficiency of data communication.
•Message-The data being communicated can take various forms, such as text,
images, audio, or video.
•Sender-The device or user initiating the data transmission.

•Receiver-The device or user at the receiving end of the communication.

•Protocol-A set of rules and conventions that govern data communication. Protocols
ensure that devices with different architectures and designs can
communicate effectively.
•Latency -The delay between the transmission and reception of data. Lower latency is
crucial for real-time communication. Prof.Jagtap S.N
 Components of data communication
•Sender: Initiates the data transfer.

•Receiver: Accepts the transmitted data.

•Message: The data being communicated.

•Medium: The path through which the data travels (e.g., cable, wireless).

•Protocol: Governs how the communication takes place.

•Standards : Standards in data communication ensure interoperability,

consistency, and compatibility between devices and technologies
developed
by different manufacturers or organizations.
They establish rules, guidelines, and specifications for hardware, software, and
protocols to ensure reliable communication.

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Block Diagram of data
communication
Transmissio
Source Transmitter Receiver
n medium

Destination

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Data transmission

 Transfer the data between two or more digital device in analog or digital format.

Type of Data Transmission

Serial Parallel

synchronous asynchronous

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Types of data Transmission
1.Serial Transmission-
• It sends data bit one after another over single channel.
• In serial transmission, data bits are sent sequentially, one bit at a time, over a single
communication channel or wire.
Characteristics:
• Requires only one communication line.
• Slower compared to parallel transmission but less prone to signal interference and
noise.
• Suitable for long-distance communication.
Examples: USB (Universal Serial Bus), RS232, Ethernet.
Advantages:
• Simple wiring.
• Cost-effective for long distances.
• Reliable over noisy channels.
Disadvantages:
• more time required & Slower than parallel transmission for large volumes of data.
Prof.Jagtap S.N
 0 0
1 1
0 0
Sender Receiver
1 1
0 0

fig. Parallel Transmission

0
0 One by one 1 Receiver
Sender 1 0
0 1
1 0
0
Prof.Jagtap S.N fig. serial
Transmission
 2. Parallel Transmission
• It sends multiple data bits of same time over multiple channel.
• In parallel transmission, multiple data bits are sent simultaneously,
with each bit traveling over a separate communication line.
Characteristics:
• Requires multiple communication lines (equal to the number of bits
transmitted simultaneously).
• Faster than serial transmission but prone to crosstalk and signal
degradation over long distances.
• Best suited for short distances.
Examples: Printer cables, internal data buses in computers (e.g., PCI,
RAM data transfer).
Advantages:
• High-speed data transfer.
• Suitable for high-volume, short-distance communication.
Disadvantages:
• Expensive due to the need for multiple lines.
Prof.Jagtap S.N

• Signal synchronization issues for long-distance communication.

  Types of serial transmission

1.Synchronous Transmission
• A lot of Data sent in a block. Each block has many character.
• In synchronous transmission, data is sent in a continuous stream,
and the sender and receiver are synchronized using a shared clock
signal.
Characteristics:
• Data is transmitted as a steady stream of bits (blocks or frames) without
gaps between them.
• Requires precise timing coordination between sender and receiver.
• A clock signal or protocol establishes the timing for when bits are sent and
received.
0101010 101101 111100
Sender Receiver
1 10

Prof.Jagtap S.N
Multiple data
 • Applications:
• Used in high-speed communication systems such as Ethernet, SDH
(Synchronous Digital Hierarchy), and fiber optic communication.
• Advantages:
• High data transfer rate because there is no overhead for start/stop bits.
• Efficient for transmitting large amounts of data.
• Disadvantages:
• Requires a complex setup with clock synchronization.
• Error detection and recovery can be more challenging.
• Example Protocols: SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface), I2C, Ethernet.

Prof.Jagtap S.N
2. Asynchronous Transmission

• In asynchronous transmission, data is sent one byte or character at a time,

and each unit of data is accompanied by start(0) and stop(1) bits to signify the beginning and
end of the transmission.

•Characteristics:
•No shared clock signal; the sender and receiver operate independently.
•Data is transmitted only when it's ready, with gaps or idle time between transmissions.
•Start bit (usually 0) indicates the beginning of a character, and a stop bit
(usually 1)
signals the end.
stop start

1 010101 0

Sender Receiver

Prof.Jagtap S.N
 Applications:
•Common in low-speed communication systems like keyboards, modems, and
serial ports (RS-232).

Advantages:
•Simple and cost-effective since no clock synchronization is needed.
•Flexible and ideal for intermittent data transmission.

Disadvantages:
•Slower than synchronous transmission due to overhead (start and stop bits).
•Less efficient for large volumes of data.

Example Protocols: UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter), RS-

232.

Prof.Jagtap S.N
 Transmission characteristic
 1.Data Rate
• Definition: The amount of data transmitted per second, usually measured in bits per second
(bps).
• Importance:
• It determines how quickly data can be sent from the sender to the receiver.
• A higher data rate implies faster communication.
• Factors Affecting Data Rate:
• Bandwidth: Wider bandwidth allows higher data rates.
• Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR): A higher SNR improves data rate.
• Channel Quality: More noise or interference reduces the achievable data rate.
• Examples:
• Modern Ethernet (e.g., 1 Gbps, 10 Gbps) offers very high data rates for communication.
 2. Bit Rate
• Definition: The number of bits transmitted per second (bps). It represents the actual payload of the
data being sent.
• Formula: Bit Rate= n×r
• Where:
• n = number of bits per signal element
• r= signaling rate (symbols per second)
• Examples:
Prof.Jagtap S.N
• In a system transmitting 1 million bits per second, the bit rate is 1 Mbps.
 3. Baud Rate (Symbol Rate)
• Definition: The number of signal changes (symbols) transmitted per second. It is
measured in baud (symbols per second).
• Baud Rate=Number of Bits per Symbol Bit Rate​

Difference Between Baud Rate and Bit Rate:

• Bit rate refers to the number of bits transmitted per second.
• Baud rate refers to the number of signal changes (symbols) per second.
• If each symbol represents multiple bits, the bit rate will be higher than the baud rate.
• Formula: Baud Rate=Bit Rate /Number of Bits per Symbol
• Examples:
• If 1 signal change (symbol) represents 2 bits, and the bit rate is 1000 bps, the baud rate is:
Baud Rate=1000 bps2=500 symbols/second.

 4. Signaling Rate
• Definition: The rate at which signal elements (symbols) are transmitted over the
communication medium. It is synonymous with the baud rate.
• Units: Measured in symbols per second (baud).
• Relationship with Bandwidth:
•
Prof.JagtapAS.N
higher signaling rate requires a wider bandwidth to avoid signal distortion.
• Formula: Signaling Rate=Number of Bits per Symbol Bit Rate​(Same as Baud Rate)
 Relationship Between Bit Rate and Baud Rate
 The relationship depends on how many bits are encoded in each
signal element (symbol). This is determined by the modulation
technique used:
• For Binary Signaling: Each signal element represents 1 bit (n=1n =
1n=1). Bit Rate=Baud Rate
• For Multi-Level Signaling: Each signal element represents n bits.
Bit Rate=Baud Rate
• Bit Rate=Baud Rate×n
Where:
n = Number of bits encoded in each symbol.
 Example:
• If 4 bits are encoded in each symbol and the baud rate is 1000 baud:
Bit Rate=1000×4=4000 bps.

Prof.Jagtap S.N
Network Topology
 How the connection are connected.
 The physical arrangement of computer system/ nodes which is
connected to each other.
 Physical topology – connections such as cables & wire
 Logical topology – conceptual framework of the network including the
rationale for its arrangement & data flow.
Represented as graph.

Prof.Jagtap S.N
 1.Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, every device is connected to each
other device via a particular channel. These channels
are known as links
• Suppose, the N number of devices are connected
with each other in a mesh topology, the total number
comp1 comp2
of ports that are required by each device is N-1.
• No. of port per device =n-1
No of ports/links=n(n-1)
Realibity=high
comp3 comp4
Cost = high
Security =high

Prof. Jagtap S.N

 Advantages of Mesh Topology
• In case of failure of a single device, the entire network didn’t break.

• There is no traffic problem as there is a dedicated point to point links for every device.

• Mesh Topology provides high privacy and security due to device are direct
connected

• Multiple device can send the data simultaneously.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

• If particular machine fails then we won't send the message from failed machine.

• Mesh Topology is costly as compared to the other network topologies i.e. star, bus,
point to point topology.

• Installation of nodes are difficult (connected to every system).

• Power requirement is higher as all the nodes will need to remain active all the time and
share the load.

• Each node requires an extra utility cost.

• More maintenance is required in mesh topology.

Prof.Jagtap S.N
2.Star topology
 In Star Topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub/switch/router
through a cable.
 The hub is the central node and all other nodes are connected to the central
node.
 Data share through only by hub. comp1 comp4
 Example- High speed LAN

No. of cable = n
Hub/switch/router

No of ports=n

Realibity=no (due to connected to hub )

Cost = high comp2 comp3

Security =less Prof.Jagtap S.N

 Advantages of Star Topology
• Less expensive due to cable.

• Easy to connect new node

• Easy to configure (because Easy to add or remove new device connecting or

disconnecting the cable)

• It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than that.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

• If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole system
will crash down.

• We can't send private message.

Prof.Jagtap S.N
 3.Bus Topology
 Bus Topology
• Bus Topology is a network type in which every computer and network
device is connected to a single cable.
• It is bi-directional. It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust
topology because if the backbone fails the topology crashes.
• Example – Ethernet cable

Advantages of Bus Topology

• Less cabling

• Easy to install

• Less expensive

• CSMA is the most common method for this type of topology.

Prof.Jagtap S.N
• Disadvantages of Bus Topology

• Used for Limited computers only

• A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of cabling.

• If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down because it depends
on bus /cable.

• If the network traffic is heavy, it increases data collisions in the network (To avoid this,
various protocols are used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha,
CSMA/CD, etc.)

• Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.

• Security is very low.

connector comp Backbone
Comp 1
2 cable/Bus

Cables
comp3 comp4 comp5

Prof.Jagtap S.N
4.Tree topology

 Tree topology is the combines characteristics of both bus & star

topology.
 This topology has a hierarchical flow of data (like tree structure).
 In Tree Topology, protocols like DHCP and SAC (Standard
Automatic Configuration) are used.

Prof.Jagtap S.N
 Advantages of Tree Topology

• It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it

decreases the distance that is traveled by the signal to come to the
devices.

• It allows the network to get isolated and also prioritize from different
computers.

• We can add new devices to the existing network.

• Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

• If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.

• The cost is high because of the cabling.

Prof.Jagtap S.N
• If new devices are added, it becomes difficult to reconfigure.
 5.Ring Topology

 In a Ring Topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly

two neighboring devices
 The data flows in one direction, i.e. it is unidirectional, but it can be
made bidirectional by having 2 connections between each Network
Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
 Example-Token ring comp1

comp2 comp4

Prof.Jagtap S.N comp3

Advantages of Ring Topology

• The data transmission is high-speed.

• The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.

• Cheap to install and expand.

• It is less costly than a star topology.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

• The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to
fail.

• Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.

• The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can disturb

the whole topology.

• Less secure(unnecessary send data to all nodes). Prof.Jagtap S.N

6.Hybrid Topology
 Hybrid Topology is the combination of two or more the various types
of topologies .
 Hybrid Topology is used when the nodes are free to take any form. It
means these can be individuals such as Ring or Star topology or can
be a combination of various types of topologies

Prof.Jagtap S.N
Advantages of Hybrid Topology

• This topology is very flexible .

• The size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new

devices.

Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

• It is challenging to design the architecture of the Hybrid Network.

• Hubs used in this topology are very expensive.

• The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a

lot of cabling and network devices .

Prof.Jagtap S.N
Needs of Computer Networks
 Computer networks are essential for modern communication and
information exchange. The key needs of computer networks include:
1. Resource Sharing: To allow multiple users to share hardware (e.g.,
printers, storage) and software (e.g., applications, databases).
2. Data Sharing: Enables users to exchange data across computers in
real-time, improving collaboration.
3. Communication: Facilitates instant communication through emails,
messaging, VoIP, and video conferencing.
4. Cost Efficiency: Reduces hardware and software costs by enabling
resource centralization and sharing.
5. Centralized Management: Networks allow centralized control,
monitoring, and management of resources and systems.
6. Scalability: Enables easy addition of new devices and users without
significant changes.
7. Remote Access: Allows users to access systems and data remotely,
promoting flexibility and remote work. Prof.Jagtap S.N
Network Criteria

 For a computer network to be efficient and effective, it must meet the following
criteria:
1. Performance:
1. Throughput: High data transfer rates.
2. Latency: Minimal delays in data transmission.
2. Reliability:
1. Consistent and error-free data transmission.
2. Minimal downtime and quick recovery from failures.
3. Security:
1. Protects data from unauthorized access, breaches, and cyberattacks.
2. Ensures data confidentiality, integrity, and availability.
4. Scalability:
1. Ability to grow with increasing users and devices without degradation in performance.
5. Cost:
1. Network infrastructure, maintenance, and operational costs must be within budget
constraints.
Prof.Jagtap S.N
Advantages of Networking

1. File Sharing: Enables seamless sharing of files across devices.

2. Hardware Sharing: Reduces costs by sharing peripherals like printers
and scanners.
3. Improved Communication: Facilitates fast communication via email,
chat, and conferencing tools.
4. Centralized Data Management: Easier to manage data in a
centralized location.
5. Data Backup and Recovery: Networks make data backup and
recovery more straightforward and efficient.
6. Increased Productivity: Enhances teamwork and collaboration by
enabling real-time data sharing and communication.
7. Remote Access: Users can access network resources from anywhere,
fostering flexibility.
8. Cost Efficiency: Reduces overall costs through shared resources and
centralized management.
Prof.Jagtap S.N
Network classification based on
transmission technology
 1. Point-to-Point
In a point-to-point network, communication occurs directly between two
devices or nodes.
Characteristics:
• Dedicated communication link between two devices.
• The link is not shared with other devices.
• Ensures reliable and secure data transfer since only two devices are involved.
• Common in wired connections like telephone lines or direct fiber-optic links.
Example:
• A direct connection between two computers using a crossover Ethernet cable.
• A dedicated link between a computer and a printer.
Prof.Jagtap S.N
  2. Multipoint
In a multipoint network, a single communication link is shared among
multiple devices or nodes.
Characteristics:
• Also called a shared link network.
• Multiple devices can be connected to the same medium (e.g., a single
cable or a wireless channel).
• Communication is either time-shared (each device gets a time slot)
or spatially shared (devices share the link simultaneously).
• Cost-effective as multiple devices share the same resources.
Example:
• A local area network (LAN) where several devices share the same
network cable or hub.
• A multipoint wireless access point where multiple devices connect to
the same Wi-Fi router.
Prof.Jagtap S.N
  3. Broadcast
In a broadcast network, messages are transmitted to all devices
connected to the network simultaneously.
Characteristics:
• A single sender sends the data, and all devices in the network can
receive it.
• Typically used in LANs and wireless networks.
• Nodes decide whether to accept or ignore the transmitted message
(based on address filtering).
• Efficient for tasks like sending a message to multiple recipients or
delivering public announcements.
Example:
• Ethernet networks where a message is broadcast to all devices
connected to a switch.
• Wireless networks where a signal is broadcast, and multiple devices
can receive it.
Prof.Jagtap S.N
Comparison Table

Communicatio
Type Connection Example
n

Dedicated link
Telephone line,
Point-to-Point between 2 Direct, exclusive
direct cable
nodes

Shared link LAN, Wi-Fi

Time-shared or
Multipoint among multiple access point , TV
simultaneous
nodes channel access

Ethernet,
Shared medium Simultaneous to
Broadcast wireless
with all nodes all devices
broadcasting

Prof.Jagtap S.N
Based on physical size(Scale)
 1. PAN (Personal Area Network)
• Physical Size: Very small, typically within a range of 1 to 10 meters.
• Coverage: Personal devices like smartphones, laptops, and wearable
devices.
• Purpose: Connecting personal devices for short-range communication.
• Examples: Bluetooth connections, infrared, or USB tethering.

 2. BAN (Body Area Network)

• Physical Size: Extremely small, confined to the human body.
• Coverage: Typically, within a range of 2 meters around the body.
• Purpose: Connecting wearable or implanted medical devices (e.g.,
fitness trackers, pacemakers).
• Examples: Health monitoring systems, wearable devices
communicating with mobile apps.
Prof.Jagtap S.N
 3. LAN (Local Area Network)
• Physical Size: Small to medium, covering a single building or
campus (up to a few kilometers).
• Coverage: Homes, offices, schools, or small enterprises.
• Purpose: Connecting multiple computers and devices within a
localized area for resource sharing.
• Examples: Office or home Wi-Fi networks, Ethernet networks.

 4. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

• Physical Size: Medium to large, typically spanning a city or
metropolitan area (up to 50 kilometers).
• Coverage: Interconnecting multiple LANs within a city or town.
• Purpose: Providing network connectivity on a city-wide scale.
• Examples: City-wide Wi-Fi networks, cable TV networks.

Prof.Jagtap S.N
 5. VPN (Virtual Private Network)
• Physical Size: Not defined by physical size, as it operates virtually
over existing networks like the internet.
• Coverage: Can span across any geographical area, as it uses
encryption to securely connect remote users to a private network.
• Purpose: Secure remote access, privacy, and bypassing geographic
restrictions.
• Examples: Corporate VPNs for remote employees, personal VPNs for
anonymous browsing.

 Size Hierarchy
• Smallest: BAN → PAN → LAN → MAN → VPN (dependent on scope).
• Largest (physical reach): VPN, as it can connect globally through the
internet.

Prof.Jagtap S.N
Based on Architecture :
1. peer-to-peer (P2P) model
 A peer-to-peer (P2P) model is a decentralized network architecture
where participants (or peers) interact directly with each other without
the need for a centralized server or intermediary.
 P2P models are commonly used in various applications, including file
sharing, cryptocurrency, decentralized applications (dApps), and
collaborative networks.
Key Features of the P2P Model:
1. Decentralization:
1. No central authority controls the system. Each peer has equal
rights and responsibilities.
2. Direct Communication:
1. Peers communicate and exchange data directly, without a
middleman.
3. Distributed Resources:
1. Each peer contributes its resources (e.g., bandwidth, storage, or
processing power) to the network. Prof.Jagtap S.N
4. Scalability:
1. As more peers join the network, its capacity and resilience often improve.
5. Fault Tolerance:
2. Because the network is decentralized, failure of one or more peers doesn't
necessarily disrupt the entire system.

Advantages of P2P:
• Cost-Efficiency: No need for expensive centralized infrastructure.
• Privacy & Control: Users retain greater control over their data.
• Resilience: More resistant to censorship and single points of failure.

Disadvantage of P2P:
• Security Risks: Vulnerable to malware and data breaches.
• Complexity: Harder to manage and maintain than centralized systems.
• Resource Dependency: Performance depends on peer contributions and
availability.
• Backup : Hard to backup
• Speed : Slow in speed Prof.Jagtap S.N
2. client-server network
 A client-server network is a centralized network architecture where devices
(clients) interact with a central server to access resources, services, or data.
 This model is widely used in modern computing environments, including web
applications, email systems, and enterprise networks.

Key Features of a Client-Server Network:

1. Centralized Server: A central server provides services, resources, and data to
multiple clients.
2. Clients: Devices (e.g., computers, smartphones, or IoT devices) request
resources or services from the server.
3. Resource Management: Servers manage data storage, processing, and
security, while clients handle user interactions.
4. Scalability: Servers can be upgraded to handle more clients or higher
performance demands.
5. Authentication and Security: Centralized authentication ensures secure
access to resources.

Prof.Jagtap S.N
Advantages of Client-Server Networks:
1. Centralized Control:
1. Easier to manage and secure data and resources.
2. Scalability:
1. Servers can be upgraded to handle more users or increased demand.
3. Data Consistency:
1. Centralized storage ensures consistent data across all clients.
4. Efficient Resource Sharing:
1. Multiple clients can share server resources efficiently.
Disadvantages of Client-Server Networks:
5. Single Point of Failure : If the server fails, the entire network may become
inoperable.
6. Cost: Setting up and maintaining servers can be expensive.
7. Scalability Limits: High traffic or demand can overwhelm servers without
proper scaling.
8. Latency: Requests and responses depend on network speed and server
performance. Prof.Jagtap S.N
Comparison: Client-Server vs Peer-to-Peer (P2P)

Aspect Client-Server Peer-to-Peer

Architecture Centralized Decentralized

Managed by server
Control Shared among peers
admin

Limited by server Increases with more

Scalability
capacity peers

Vulnerable to server More resilient due to

Fault Tolerance
failure decentralization

Web apps, email, BitTorrent, blockchain,

Examples
databases dApps
Prof.Jagtap S.N