Modes of Heat

Transfer: Laws

Hareesh Padayath
Assistant Professor
Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science
 Modes of Heat Transfer
1. Conductive Heat Transfer

2. Fan cools us faster! How? –

Convective Heat Transfer

3. Sun gives us warmth! How? -

Radiative Heat Transfer
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Conduction – Fourier’s Law of Heat
Conduction
• q  J/s
• k Thermal Conductivity (W/mK)
• dT  Infinitesimal temperature difference
• dx  Infinitesimal length along the direction of heat transfer takes place
• A  Area perpendicular to the direction of heat transfer

• Why the negative?

• dT generally mean T at final point where heat reaches – T at the point from which the heat
has started
• This would be negative as T at starting point is greater than T at ending point
• But by convention (and convenience), it is better to have the sign of heat transfer from high
temperature to low temperature as positive
• Hence the negative sign
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 Thermal Conductivity (k)

• Fourier’s Law defined the property of a material (thermal conductivity) that quantifies its ability
to conduct heat for the first time

• Typically ksolids> kliquids> kgases

• Unit of Thermal Conductivity?

• W/m K to W/m C - How to convert?

• A “Watts(J/s) or heat rate” is involved (per meter per Celsius degree)

• Thermal conductivity indicates how fast heat will flow in a given material

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 Conduction – Fourier’s Law of Heat
Conduction
q 𝑑𝑇
=−𝑘
𝐴 𝑑𝑥

• Why the differential?

• Means this law is applicable to an infinitesimal element
• Infinitesimal element is same for all geometry
• Fourier’s law becomes more general with the differential
• When does the ordinary differential become partial differential?
• When there is temperature variation along x-axis and/or y-axis and/or z-axis and/or time

q 𝜕 𝑇
=−𝑘
𝐴 𝜕 𝑥

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 Thermal conductivity (k)
• The Kinetic Theory of Gases is a model that explains the macroscopic properties of gases based
on the behavior of their constituent particles (atoms or molecules)

• This model works well for gases with close to ideal gas behavior

• Analytical treatments in the kinetic theory of gases may be used to predict conductivity
somewhat accurately at a certain temperature for gases with close to ideal gas behavior

• In some cases, theories are available for the prediction of thermal conductivities in liquids and
solids and for highly non ideal gases/vapor

• But in general, many open questions and concepts still need clarification when liquids, solids and
highly non ideal gases/vapor are concerned

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 Thermal Conductivity (k)

• Note the typical values of thermal conductivity

• If conductivity value of a material is not known to you,

your guess should not be off by orders of magnitude!

• Appendix A of the text by Holman has the conductivity of

most of the materials generally encountered

• Typically order of magnitude - 1 to 2 (in W/m K) – Metals

• Typically order of magnitude - -2 to 0 (in W/m K) – Gases,

Liquids and Non Metals

• There are a lot of exceptions

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 Thermal Conductivity (k)

• Metals clearly have higher thermal conductivity

• The trends within the metals is dictated by the number of free electrons
available and their mobility

• Generally non- metals tend to have lower thermal conductivity compared to

metals but there are strong exceptions – ex) Diamond

• Diamond have a robust crystalline structure. Vibrational energy due to

thermal energy in the crystal lattice get transferred effectively in spite of the
absence of free electrons

• So the crystalline structure and the effectiveness of transfer of vibrational

energy through that crystalline structure cause variation within non-metal
materials

• Amorphous structure (like in glass) results in poor thermal conductivity –

Atoms not arranged in a regular repeating pattern

• Ice is less dense than water. True or False. Why?

• Ice crystal has an ordered structure, but with considerable empty
space between the water molecules – Increased Volume compared to
water and hence less dense

• Tiny air pockets in Styrofoam introduced by design in molten polystyrene

negatively effects thermal conductivity – Insulating material 8
 Thermal Conductivity (k)

• Tiny gaps/air holes negatively effect thermal conductivity – sawdust used for
thermal insulation

• Liquids typically have thermal conductivity less than metals and crystalline
non metallic solids

• Liquid metals like mercury typically have high thermal conductivity

compared to other liquids due to the presence of free electrons

• Gases typically have thermally conductivity less than solids and liquids

• Tiny gaps/air holes based solid thermal insulation is as good as or better

than most liquids and gases based thermal insulation. Why?
• Minimizes Natural Convection

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 Variation of Thermal Conductivity
with Temperature
• Conductivity k varies with temperature!

• Mechanism 1: With heat, collision between molecules increases and conductivity increases
• Mechanism 2: With heat, space between molecules increases/bond between molecules become
weaker and conductivity decreases

• Depending on the intermolecular force and the phase of the materials involved, one or/and two
dictates the variation of conductivity with temperature

• Mechanism 1 mostly dictates ideal gas or close to ideal gas behavior

• Mechanism 2 becomes important when intermolecular forces become important – highly non
ideal gas/vapor, liquids and solids

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 Variation of Thermal Conductivity (k) with temperature -
Gases

• Mechanism 1: With heat, collision between molecules

increases and conductivity increases
• Mechanism 2: With heat, space between molecules
increases/bond between molecules become weaker and
conductivity decreases

• Mechanism 1 dominates in gases as intermolecular space is

already high with very weak intermolecular bond

• A simplified analytical treatment shows the thermal

conductivity of a gas to vary with the square root of the
absolute temperature

• For most gases at moderate pressures the thermal

conductivity is a function of temperature alone and not
pressure

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• “For most gases at moderate pressures the thermal conductivity is a function of temperature alone and not
pressure” Why?

• At higher pressures, number density should increase and it should actually increase the collision frequency
and increase heat transfer. Right? Then why independent of pressure?

• Mean free path or the distance travelled before next collision decreases

• The distance over which a molecule can carry its kinetic energy before colliding and transferring it is
reduced

• This can actually reduce the overall rate of heat energy transfer

• So the balance between increased collision and decreased mean free path result in relatively constant
thermal conductivity at moderate pressures

• At very high pressures, gases deviate from ideal gas behavior resulting in complex relationship between
pressure and thermal conductivity

• At very low pressures, the mean free path increases and the mode of heat transfer is in between
conduction and convection as seen in some detail later
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 Variation of Thermal Conductivity (k) with
temperature - Liquids

• Mechanism 1: With heat, collision between

molecules increases and conductivity increases
• Mechanism 2: With heat, space between
molecules increases/bond between molecules
become weaker and conductivity decreases

• Both mechanisms are involved and may effect

each other also

• A simplified analytical treatment is difficult

• No general trend for liquids

• Why water above 100 C included in the plot?

• Gases and Vapor difference?

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Variation of Thermal Conductivity (k) with temperature -
Solids

• Mechanism 1: With heat, collision between molecules

increases and conductivity increases
• Mechanism 2: With heat, space between molecules
increases/bond between molecules become weaker
and conductivity decreases

• Mechanism 2 is dominant

• However, free electrons available in some solids like

metals aid heat transfer through collisions –
Mechanism 1 is dominant

• Heat Transfer by free electrons similar to that of gases

• Can you guess why the conductivity of Aluminum

increases with temperature whereas conductivity of
Copper decreases with temperature?

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 Cryogenic Insulating Materials
• To maintain a system at 15oC to −195oC at room temperature

• Freezing and preserving biological materials, Food

• Superconductivity – Electrical: Atoms in a material are constantly vibrating. These vibrations

(phonons) scatter the electrons moving through the material, hindering their flow and causing
electrical resistance
• At cryogenic temperatures, the vibrations are minimized, allowing electrons to move through
the material with minimal resistance
• Electrons themselves are not effected by the lower temperature - Cooper pair formation
Beyond the scope!

• Aerospace – In commercial airplanes temperatures outside can reach -50°C to -60°C ! – Good
insulating material to preserve heat inside the aero plane

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Cryogenic Insulating Materials

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 Conduction – In Brief
• Conduction – Movement of heat energy from a high energy zone to a low energy zone happened
though the interaction between molecules

• Transmission of Vibrational energy through

1. Collision between molecules (or free electrons)
2. Interaction between neighboring atoms/molecules though interatomic/inter-molecular
bonds

• Phonons - Represent the quantized nature of vibrational energy, similar to how photons represent
the quantized nature of light

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 Convection

• Heat is transferred by the bulk movement of fluid and not by

molecular interactions

1. Natural Convection

2. Forced Convection

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 Natural Convection
• Natural Convection Animation

• Why do the molecules/atoms move up on heating?

• Buoyancy – What is it?

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 Buoyancy
• Buoyancy is the upward force (FB) exerted by a fluid on an object immersed in
it
• Magnitude of the force exerted is equal to the weight of the fluid dispersed
(and not solid)

• Net force :

Buoyant Force

• Net force :

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 Buoyancy – In Brief

Net force :

• – Negative Downward Force

• – Positive Upward Force

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 Buoyancy
• Why Buoyancy act upward and not sideways?

• Pressure is isotropic, but there is an energy difference

between the top and bottom of the body immersed. How?

• Bernoulli’s theorem!

• Hence the upward push

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 Buoyancy in Natural Convection
• Here, the situation is not that of a solid particle in fluid

• Fluid near the heat source expands making it less dense in relation to the
surrounding fluid

• Instead of a particle, a certain zone is formed where the density is less in

relation to the surrounding fluid causing the fluid to rise

• This high temperature fluid zone makes its way to the top displacing the
other particles on the way using its high energy

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 Buoyancy in Natural Convection
• Of course, there is some heat loss to the surrounding fluid in the process

• It reaches the top with some heat loss but carrying most of it to the top

• The colder fluid at the top is forced by the hot fluid which reached the top to move
down

• Essentially heat moved from high temperature zone to low temperature zone due
to the bulk motion of the fluid

• Natural Convection Animation – Can be understood better now

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 Natural Convection
Conduction in Gas:

• Mean free path is the average distance a molecule travels between collisions with other molecules

• In low-density gases (like those at very low pressures), the mean free path can become quite long

• When the mean free path is significantly long, molecules can travel considerable distances before colliding

• In such cases, the distinction between conduction (energy transfer through collisions) and convection (bulk
fluid movement) becomes less clear

• The molecules are essentially carrying their kinetic energy (and thus heat) over relatively large distances,
which has characteristics of both conduction and convection

• At the start, conduction happens before natural convection starts!

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 Forced Convection
• A hot and stationery solid/fluid object will cool faster when exposed to an external moving fluid

• Forced Convection: Heat Transfer between a stationery fluid/solid and a moving fluid, where bulk
movement of the fluid is caused by a third entity

• Natural convection: Heat Transfer between a stationery fluid/solid, (which is generally the heat
source) and a moving fluid, where the bulk movement of the fluid is the consequence of, and
cause of heat transfer and not a third entity

• Third entity causing bulk movement of fluid: Hence the name forced convection

• Bulk movement of the fluid is the consequence of, and cause of heat transfer, and not a third
entity: Hence the name natural convection

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 Forced Convection
• Examples of third entity causing bulk movement of fluid

• Work done on the fluid by a fan, pump, a person using his/her

lungs etc

• Sun?
• Wind! Can be seen as natural convection caused by sun!

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Forced Convection
• Velocity of the fluid layer at the wall will be
zero

• The heat will be transferred by conduction at

that point

• The rate of heat transfer can be found by using

Fourier’s law with the thermal conductivity of
the fluid and the fluid temperature gradient at
the wall

• Heat has already been transferred to the fluid.

Then how is forced convection helping the
heat transfer?

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Forced Convection
• The temperature gradient across the stationery
layer, is dependent on the rate at which the
fluid carries the heat away

• A high velocity produces a large temperature

gradient, and so on

• Also thickness of the stationery layer decreases

with higher velocity

• But the physical mechanism of heat transfer at

the wall is eventually a conduction process

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Convection – Newton’s Law of
Cooling
𝑞=h𝐴(𝑇 𝑤 − 𝑇 ∞ )
q  Heat Transfer Rate
between the two entities (J/s
or W)

h  Convective heat transfer

coefficient (W/m2K)

A  Surface Area Between the

two entities (m2)

 Temperature difference
between the two entities (K)

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 Convection – Newton’s Law of
Cooling
• Historically, law was formulated to describe the rate of cooling of hot objects – Hence Newton’s
law of cooling

• Actually describes the rate of heat exchange (heating or cooling)

• Applicable to both natural convection and forced convection

• Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient takes care of the properties of the moving fluid, nature of its
flow and velocity relevant to heat transfer

• In natural convection, convective heat transfer coefficient takes care of the effects of buoyant
force, density of the fluid, viscosity of the fluid, specific heat capacity of the fluid,
conductivity of the fluid etc
• In forced convection, convective heat transfer coefficient takes care of the nature of flow
(laminar or turbulent)of the fluid, velocity of the fluid, density of the fluid, viscosity of the
fluid, heat capacity of the fluid, conductivity of the fluid etc 31
 Temperature and Pressure
• Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules/atoms in a substance.
• This kinetic energy includes:
• Translational Kinetic Energy: The energy associated with the motion of the atoms/molecules
from one place to another.
• Rotational Kinetic Energy: The energy associated with the rotation of molecule/atoms around
their centers of mass.
• Vibrational Kinetic Energy: The energy associated with the vibrations of molecules/atoms
(bonds stretching and bending).

• Pressure directly depends on average kinetic energy of the molecules/atoms in a substance and
the number density of the atoms/molecules

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