Chapter1p2 - Lectures 4,5
Chapter1p2 - Lectures 4,5
and Proofs
Chapter 1, Part II: Predicate Logic
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Chapter Summary
Propositional Logic
The Language of Propositions 1.1
Applications 1.2
Logical Equivalences 1.3
Predicate Logic (This Slide)
Predicates and Quantifiers 1.4
Nested Quantifiers 1.5
Proofs
Rules of Inference 1.6
Proof Methods 1.7
Proof Strategy 1.8
Predicate Logic Summary
Predicates and Quantifiers (Sec 1.4 -Lecture 4)
Universal and Existential Quantifier
Logical Equivalence involving quantifiers
Negating Quantifiers and De Morgan’s Laws for
Quantifiers
Translating English to Logic
Nested Quantifiers (Sec 1.5 – Lecture 5)
Order of Quantifiers
Translating
Negating Nested Quantifiers.
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Predicates and Quantifiers
Section 1.4
4
Section Summary
Predicates , Variables, propositional function
Quantifiers
Universal Quantifier
Existential Quantifier
Logical Equivalence involving quantifiers
Negating Quantifiers
De Morgan’s Laws for Quantifiers
Translating English to Logic
Logic Programming (optional)
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Propositional Logic Not Enough
If we have “All men are mortal.” and “Socrates is a
man.” Propositional logic doesn’t help to infer that
“Socrates is mortal”
Some statements can’t be represented as a
proposition. Need a language that talks about
objects, their properties, and their relations:
A students in the class is lazy. needs assignment
Generalizing for simplicity:
Rafael is student or Kevin is student or …
There exist a person in the class who is student.
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Introducing Predicate Logic
Predicate logic uses the following new
features:
Variables: x, y, z
Predicates: P(x), M(x)
Propositional functions are a generalization
of propositions.
They contain variables and a predicate, e.g.,
P(x)
Variables can be replaced by elements from
their domain.
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Propositional Functions
Propositional functions become propositions (and have truth
values) when their variables are each replaced by a value from the
domain (or bound by a quantifier, as we will see later).
The statement P(x) is said to be the value of the propositional
For example, let P(x) denote “x > 0” and the domain be the
function P at x.
integers. Then:
P(-3) is false.
P(0) is false.
P(3) is true.
Often the domain is denoted by U. So in this example U is the
integers.
R(x, 3, z)
Solution: T
Q(x, 3, z)
Solution: F
∨ P(-1) Solution: T
∧ P(-1) Solution: F
P(3)
→ P(-1) Solution: F
P(3)
→ P(-1) Solution: T
P(3)
P(3)
Expressions with variables are not propositions and
P(3) ∧ P(y)
therefore do not have truth values. For example,
P(x) → P(y)
When used with quantifiers (to be introduced next), these
expressions (propositional functions) become propositions.
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Quantifiers Charles Peirce (1839-
1914)
We need quantifiers to express the meaning of English
words including all and some:
“All men are Mortal.”
“Some cats do not have fur.”
The two most important quantifiers are:
Universal Quantifier, “For all,” symbol:
Existential Quantifier, “There exists,” symbol:
We write as in x P(x) and x P(x).
x P(x) asserts P(x) is true for every x in the domain.
x P(x) asserts P(x) is true for some x in the domain.
The quantifiers are said to bind the variable x in these
expressions.
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Universal Quantifier
x P(x) is read as “For all x, P(x)” or “For every
x, P(x)”
integers, then
2)
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Existential Quantifier
x P(x) is read as “For some x, P(x)”, or as
“There is an x such that P(x),” or “For at
least one x, P(x).”
integers, then
2.
then
3.
x P(x) is true.
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Uniqueness Quantifier
!x P(x) means that P(x) is true for one and only one x in the
universe of discourse.
This is commonly expressed in English in the following
equivalent ways:
“There is a unique x such that P(x).”
“There is one and only one x such that P(x)”
Examples:
1. If P(x) denotes “x + 1 = 0” and U is the integers, then !x P(x)
false.
P(x))∨ Q(x)
x (P(x) ∨ Q(x)) means something different.
Unfortunately, often people write x P(x) ∨
Q(x) when they mean x (P(x) ∨ Q(x)).
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Thinking about Quantifiers as Conjunctions
and Disjunctions
If U consists of the integers 1,2, and 3:
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Thinking as a programmer
When the domain of discourse is finite, we can think of
quantification as looping through the elements of the domain.
To evaluate x P(x) loop through all x in the domain.
If at every step P(x) is true, then x P(x) is true.
If at a step P(x) is false, then x P(x) is false and the loop
terminates.
To evaluate x P(x) loop through all x in the domain.
If at some step, P(x) is true, then x P(x) is true and the loop
terminates.
If the loop ends without finding an x for which P(x) is true, then
x P(x) is false.
Even if the domains are infinite, we can still think of the
quantifiers this fashion, but the loops will not terminate in
some cases.
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Equivalences in Predicate Logic
Statements involving predicates and
quantifiers are logically equivalent if and only
if they have the same truth value
for every predicate substituted into these
statements and
for every domain of discourse used for the
logically equivalent.
Example: x (S(x)T(x)) ≡ x S(x) x T(x)
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Negating Quantified Expressions
Consider x J(x)
“Every student in your class has taken a course in
equivalent
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Negating Quantified Expressions
(continued)
Now Consider x J(x)
“There is a student in this class who has taken a
equivalent
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De Morgan’s Laws for Quantifiers
The rules for negating quantifiers are:
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Some Predicate Calculus Definitions
An assertion involving predicates and quantifiers is valid
if it is true
for all domains
every propositional function substituted for the predicates in the
assertion.
Example:
An assertion involving predicates is satisfiable if it is true
for some domains
some propositional functions that can be substituted for the
predicates in the assertion.
Otherwise it is unsatisfiable.
Example: not valid but satisfiable
Example: unsatisfiable
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MorePredicate Calculus Definitions
The scope of a quantifier is the part of an
assertion in which variables are bound by the
quantifier.
Example: x has wide
scope
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Translation from English to Logic
Examples:
1. “Some student in this class has visited Mexico.”
Solution: Let M(x) denote “x has visited Mexico”
U be all people.
and S(x) denote “x is a student in this class,” and
x (S(x) ∧ M(x))
2. “Every student in this class has visited Canada
or Mexico.”
Solution: Add C(x) denoting “x has visited
x (S(x)→ (M(x)∨C(x)))
Canada.”
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Translating from English to Logic
Example 1: Translate the following sentence into
predicate logic: “Every student in this class has
taken a course in Java.”
Solution:
First decide on the domain U.
Solution 1: If U is all students in this class, define a
x (S(x)→ J(x)).
propositional function S(x) denoting “x is a student
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Translating from English to Logic
Example 2: Translate the following sentence into
predicate logic: “Some student in this class has
taken a course in Java.”
Solution:
First decide on the domain U.
Solution 1: If U is all students in this class,
x J(x)
translate as
1. x (P(x)→ Q(x))
respectively.
2. x (P(x) ∧ ¬R(x))
3. x (Q(x) ∧ ¬R(x))
Later we will see how to prove that the conclusion follows
from the premises.
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System Specification Example
Predicate logic is used for specifying properties that systems
must satisfy.
For example, translate into predicate logic:
“Every mail message larger than one megabyte will be
compressed.”
“If a user is active, at least one network link will be
available.”
Decide on predicates and domains (left implicit here) for the
variables:
Let L(m, y) be “Mail message m is larger than y megabytes.”
Let C(m) denote “Mail message m will be compressed.”
Let A(u) represent “User u is active.”
Let S(n, x) represent “Network link n is state x.
Now we have:
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Some Fun with Translating from English
into Logical Expressions
U = {fleegles, snurds, thingamabobs}
F(x): x is a fleegle
S(x): x is a snurd
T(x): x is a thingamabob
Translate “Everything is a fleegle”
Solution: x F(x)
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Translation (cont)
U = {fleegles, snurds, thingamabobs}
F(x): x is a fleegle
S(x): x is a snurd
T(x): x is a thingamabob
“Nothing is a snurd.”
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Translation (cont)
U = {fleegles, snurds, thingamabobs}
F(x): x is a fleegle
S(x): x is a snurd
T(x): x is a thingamabob
“All fleegles are snurds.”
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Translation (cont)
U = {fleegles, snurds, thingamabobs}
F(x): x is a fleegle
S(x): x is a snurd
T(x): x is a thingamabob
“Some fleegles are thingamabobs.”
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Translation (cont)
U = {fleegles, snurds, thingamabobs}
F(x): x is a fleegle
S(x): x is a snurd
T(x): x is a thingamabob
“No snurd is a thingamabob.”
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Translation (cont)
U = {fleegles, snurds, thingamabobs}
F(x): x is a fleegle
S(x): x is a snurd
T(x): x is a thingamabob
“If any fleegle is a snurd then it is also a
thingamabob.”
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Logic Programming (optional)
language developed in the 1970s by researchers in
Prolog (from Programming in Logic) is a programming
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Logic Programming (cont)
Prolog programs are loaded into a Prolog
interpreter. The interpreter receives queries and
returns answers using the Prolog program.
For example, using our program, the following
query may be given:
?enrolled(kevin,math273).
Prolog produces the response:
yes
Note that the ? is the prompt given by the Prolog
interpreter indicating that it is ready to receive a
query.
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Logic Programming (cont)
The query:
?enrolled(X,math273).
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Section Summary
Nested Quantifiers
Order of Quantifiers
Translating from Nested Quantifiers into
English
Translating Mathematical Statements into
Statements involving Nested Quantifiers.
Translated English Sentences into Logical
Expressions.
Negating Nested Quantifiers.
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Nested Quantifiers
Nested quantifiers are often necessary to
express the meaning of sentences in English
as well as important concepts in computer
science and mathematics.
Example: “Every real number has an
x y(x + y = 0)
inverse” is
x y P(x,y) is true if the outer loop ends after stepping through each x.
outer and inner loop terminate.
If no y is found such that P(x, y) is true the outer loop terminates as x yP(x,y)
x y P(x,y) is true if the outer loop ends after stepping through each x.
has been shown to be false.
If the domains of the variables are infinite, then this process can not
actually be carried out.
Write Java codes to simulate
xy P(x,y) and xyP(x,y) .
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Order of Quantifiers
1. Let P(x,y) be the statement “x + y =0”
Examples:
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Questions on Order of Quantifiers
Example 1: Let U be the real numbers,
Define P(x,y) : x ∙ y = 0
What is the truth value of the following:
1. xyP(x,y)
Answer: False
2. xyP(x,y)
xy P(x,y)
Answer: True
3.
x y P(x,y)
Answer: True
4.
Answer: True
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Questions on Order of Quantifiers
Example 2: Let U be the R-{0},
Define P(x,y) : x / y = 1
What is the truth value of the following:
1. xyP(x,y)
Answer: False
2. xyP(x,y)
xy P(x,y)
Answer: True
3.
x y P(x,y)
Answer: False
4.
Answer: True
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Quantifications of Two Variables
Statement When True? When False
P(x,y) is true for There is a pair x, y
every pair x,y. for which P(x,y) is
false.
For every x there is a There is an x such
y for which P(x,y) is that P(x,y) is false for
true. every y.
There is an x for For every x there is a
which P(x,y) is true y for which P(x,y) is
for every y. false.
There is a pair x, y P(x,y) is false for
for which P(x,y) is every pair x,y
true.
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Translating Nested Quantifiers into English
Example 1: Translate the statement
x (C(x )∨ y (C(y ) ∧ F(x, y)))
where C(x) is “x has a computer,” and F(x,y) is “x and y
are friends,” and the domain for both x and y consists of
all students in your school.
Solution: Every student in your school has a computer
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Translating English into Logical Expressions
Example
Example: Use quantifiers to express the
statement “There is a woman who has taken a
flight on every airline in the world.”
is a flight on a .”
2. The domain of w is all women, the domain of f
is all flights, and the domain of a is all
airlines.
w a f (P(w,f ) ∧ Q(f,a))
3. Then the statement can be expressed as:
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Questions on Translation from English
Example 1: “Brothers are siblings.”
Choose the obvious predicates and express in predicate logic.
Solution: x L(x,x)
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Negating Nested Quantifiers
Example 1: Recall the logical expression developed two slides back:
w a f (P(w,f ) ∧ Q(f,a))
Part 1: Use quantifiers to express the statement that “There does not exist a
Part 2: Now use De Morgan’s Laws to move the negation as far inwards as
possible.
Solution:
“For every woman there is an airline such that for all flights, this woman has
not taken that flight or that flight is not on this airline”
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Some Questions about Quantifiers
Can you switch the order of quantifiers?
Is this a valid equivalence?
Solution: Yes! The left and the right side will always have the same truth
value. The order in which x and y are picked does not matter.
Is this a valid equivalence?
for some propositional functions for P. Try “x + y = 0” for P(x,y) with U being
Solution: No! The left and the right side may have different truth values
the integers. The order in which the values of x and y are picked does matter.
Can you distribute quantifiers over logical connectives?
Is this a valid equivalence?
Solution: Yes! The left and the right side will always have the same truth
value no matter what propositional functions are denoted by P(x) and Q(x).
Is this a valid equivalence?
Solution: No! The left and the right side may have different truth values.
Pick “x is a fish” for P(x) and “x has scales” for Q(x) with the domain of
discourse being all animals. Then the left side is false, because there are
some fish that do not have scales. But the right side is true since not all
animals are fish.
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Logic in Calculus
Example: Use quantifiers to express the definition of the limit
of a real-valued function f(x) of a real variable x at a point a
in its domain.
Solution: Recall the definition of the statement
3. Now we can repeatedly apply the rules for negating quantified expressions:
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Logic in Calculus
4. Therefore, to say that does not exist
means that for all real numbers L,
can be expressed as: