ADITYA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &

TECHNOLOGY

Electronic Switching
Systems
By

G.Sattibabu
Dept of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Aditya College of Engineering & Technology
Surampalem.
 Aditya College of Engineering and Technology

ELECTRONIC SWITCHING SYSTEMS

UNIT – I

Introduction: Evolution of Telecommunications, Simple

Telephone Communication, Basics of Switching System, Manual
Switching System, Major Telecommunication Networks.

Crossbar Switching: Principles of Common Control, Touch Tone

Dial Telephone, Principles of Crossbar Switching, Crossbar
Switch Configurations, Cross point Technology, Crossbar
Exchange Organization.

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Introduction:

 The world has undergone many changes since the evolution of man. For instance,
the exchange of information was initially in the form of signs and sounds.
 The communication from one place to another which called for distance between
individuals was carried through letters; sent by pigeons and between two groups
through drum beats or semaphores.
 This transitioned to the language and script form with advanced inventions.

 Men used to travel long distances to pass on messages.

 Today’s world is more an age of communication. The advancement of

communication techniques has increased the speed with which the transfer of
information takes place.
 This development has not been an easy process. At the beginning of the invention
of communication systems, the invention and usage of telephony was the most
important one.
 The way the telephone systems evolved from a basic system into an essential
multi-purpose friendly gadget today, leaves one and all surprised knowing the
innovations made out of the insufficient resources available in those days.
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Telecommunications

 The exchange of information between two or many individuals is

called Communication.
 The word tele is a Greek word which means distance.
Hence, Telecommunication means the exchange of information between
two distant places.
 Telecommunications represent the transfer of information, from an entity at
one place to an entity at another place, whereas the information can be in the
form of data, voice or symbol.
 The entities can be human beings, computers, facsimile machines,
telegraphy machines, phones or so on.
 In telephone conversation, the one who initiates the call is referred to as
the Calling Subscriber and the one for whom the call is destined is
the Called Subscriber. In other cases of information transfer, the
communicating entities are known as Source and Destination, respectively.

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Evolution of Telecommunications

 Historically, transmission of telegraphic signals over wires was the first

technological development in the field of modern telecommunications.
Telegraphy was introduced in 1837 in Great Britain and in 1845 in France.
 In March 1876, Alexander Graham Bell invented and demonstrated his telephone
set and the possibility of long-distance voice communication.
 He demonstrated the point-to-point communication, in which a calling subscriber
chooses the appropriate link to establish connection with the called subscriber.
 This system also requires some mode of Signalling to alert the called subscriber
about the incoming call and a signal to indicate the calling subscriber, when the
called subscriber is busy on another call.

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 Need for Switching Exchanges

 The point-to-point connection for establishing communication requires the

telephone sets to be linked using wires.
 If the number of telephone sets or the subscribers present is low in number,
the type of connection will be a little complex.
 However, if this number is high or moderate, then the connections will lead to
a high complex. To understand the complication, let us consider a network of
5 subscribers.
 The following illustration shows a point-to-point connection for five
subscribers (telephone sets):

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 In the point-to-point connection, for n entities, we

need n(n-1)/2 links.

 All these links form a network. Networks with point-to-point links

among all the entities are known as Fully Connected Networks.
 The number of links required in a fully connected network becomes
very large even with moderate values of n.
 Hence, a system of switching the networks is needed in-between
these subscribers. Alexander Graham Bell recommended the
Switching between the subscribers using a switching office that
maintains the telephone connections.

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Switching Systems
 This network connection cannot be simply made with telephone sets and
bunch of wires, but a good system is required to make or break a
connection.
 This system is known as the Switching System or the Switching Office or
the Exchange.
 With the introduction of the switching system, the subscribers instead of
getting connected directly to one another, are connected to a switching
office and then to the required subscriber.
 The following figure will help you understand the switching system.

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 All the subscribers need to have a connection with the switching system, which makes or
breaks any connection, requested by the calling subscriber.

 The switching system, which is also called the Telephone Exchange, takes care of establishing
the calls. Hence, the total number of such links is equal to the number of subscribers connected
to the system.

 Signalling is required for the switching system to establish or release a connection.

 It should also enable the switching system to detect whether a called subscriber is busy and if
so, indicate the same to the called subscriber.

 The functions performed by a switching system in establishing and releasing connections are
known as Control Functions.

 The early systems required manual operations to establish telephone calls. An operator used to
receive a call from the calling subscriber and then connect the call to the called subscriber. Later
on, the system was automated.

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Telephone Model
The following figure will help you to understand the model of telephones in
the early stage of its invention.
 When you see the telephone in the above
figure, the dialer part and the microphone
are connected to a stationary wooden
plank; and the speaker to listen, was
connected by a wire at the side.
 The top portion of the telephone has two
bells connected - these bells ring when
there is an incoming call. This is one of
the earlier models of the telephone.

 The telephone sets of the calling subscriber and the called subscriber are
connected through a switching system or a telephone exchange in order
to establish the calls requested.

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Classification of a Switching Systems

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Classification of a Switching Systems

 Early switching systems were manual and operator oriented. Limitations of operator manned
switching systems were quickly recognised and automatic exchanges came into existence.
 Automatic switching systems can be classified as electromechanical and electronic.
 Electromechanical switching systems include step-by-step and crossbar systems. The step-by step
system is better known as Strowger switching system after its inventor A.B. Strowger.
 The control functions in a Strowger system are performed by circuits associated with the switching
elements in the system. In crossbar systems, the control functions are disassociated from the
switching elements and placed in a separate subsystem called common control subsystem.
 The common control subsystems are hard-wired using relays and latches. These subsystems have
limited capability and it is virtually impossible to modify them to provide additional functionalities.
 In electronic switching systems, the control functions are performed by a computer or a processor.
Hence, these systems are called stored program control (SPC) systems.
 New facilities can be added to a SPC system by changing the control program.

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Classification of a Switching Systems

 The switching scheme used by electronic switching systems may be either space division
switching or time division switching.
 In space division switching, a dedicated and an exclusive switching path is established
between the calling and the called subscribers for the entire duration of the call whereas in
time division switching, the same switching path may be shared by more than one
subscriber pair.
 A crossbar switching system with SPC qualifies as an electronic exchange.
 Time division switching may be analog or digital. In analog switching, the sampled voltage
levels are transmitted as they are, whereas in digital switching, they are binary coded and
transmitted.
 If the coded values are transferred during the same time interval from input to output, the
technique is called space switching.
 If the values are stored and transferred to the output at a later time interval, the technique
is called time switching.
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Switching Networks

 By introducing a number of stand-alone

switching systems in appropriate
geographical locations, communication
capability can be established among the
subscribers in the same locality.

 However, for subscribers in different

localities to communicate, it is necessary
that the switching systems are
interconnected in the form of a network.

Switching Network
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Switching Networks
 The links that run between the switching systems are called trunks, and those
that run to the subscriber premises are known as subscriber or local
lines.
 The number of trunks may vary between pairs of switching systems and is
determined on the basis of traffic between them.
 The switching network came into being when switching systems installed in
different localities of a city were interconnected using trunk lines to form an
intra-city network.
 Later, the concept was extended to connecting switching systems located at
different cities, giving birth to long distance telephony.
 The first commercial intercity connection was operationalised between New
York and Boston in 1884.
 The first transcontinental trunk connected New York city to San Francisco in
1915, and the first intercontinental connectivity using short wave radio became
ESS
operational in 1927 between New
G. Sattibabu, ECE Dept. York and London.
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Communication Links
 A telephone switching network is made up of
switching systems, trunks, subscriber lines
and telephone instruments.
 Trunks and subscriber lines are essentially
communication links which carry
information signals from one point to
another.
 There are basically only two forms of
communication links—electrical and optical.
Typical electrical and optical communication
links are depicted in Figure. In the former,
information is conveyed by means of
electrical energy, and in the latter, by means
of light energy.
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Simple telephone
communication
L

V
Microphon
e
Earphon
e

□ One way communication (Simplex)

□ Microphones and earphones are
transducer.
□ Carbon microphones –
■ Do not give high fidelity signals
■ Gives strong electrical signals.
■ Acceptable quality
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Simple telephone
communication

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Simple telephone
communication
□ Microphone:
□ Microphone has carbon granules in a box.
□ One side fixed, other attached to diaphragm.
□ Resistance inversely proportional to density of
granules.
□ Diaphragm vibrates with sound and resistance
changes.
□ V applied across box.
□ ri = ro – r sin wt
□ ro = resistance without sound
□ r = max deviation in resistance.
□ ri = instantaneous resistance
□ i = V/ {ro – r sin wt}
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Simple telephone
communication
□ i = V/ [ro {1 – (r/ ro) sin wt}

□ i = Io( 1 – m sin wt)-1

□ i = Io( 1 + m sin wt + m2 sin2 wt + m3 sin3 wt

+ …)

□ m < 1.
□ i = Io( 1 + m sin wt )
□ Carbon microphone acts as amplitude
modulator.
ESS □ m should be small
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Simple telephone
communication

□ Inductor :
□ Acts as high impedance element for voice.
□ Permits DC to flow from microphone and
speaker.
□ Voice goes from microphone to speaker .

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Simple telephone
communication

□ Earphone:
□ Converts electrical to voice signal.
□ Electro magnate with magnetic diaphragm.
□ Air gap between diaphragm and poles.
□ Voice current through electro magnet exerts
variable force on diaphragm.
□ Diaphragm vibrates and produces sound.
□ Condition for faithful reproduction:
□ Diaphragm displacement in one direction only.
□ Quiescent current provides this bias.

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Simple telephone
communication
□ Instantaneous flux linking poles of electromagnet
and diaphragm:
□ φi = φ o + φ sin wt

□ φo = Constant flux due to quiescent current

□
φi = instantaneous flux
□
φ = max amplitude of flux
□
variation Assuming
■ vibration of diaphragm has little effect on air
gap
■ Reluctance of magnetic path is constant.

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Half-duplex communication & Full-duplex communication.

 In a normal telephone communication system, information is
transferred both ways. An entity is capable of both receiving and
sending although these do not take place simultaneously.
 An entity is either receiving or sending at any instant of time. When
one entity is transmitting, the other is receiving and vice versa. Such a
form of communication where the information transfer takes place
both ways but not simultaneously is known as half-duplex
communication.
 If the information transfer takes place in both directions
simultaneously, then it is called full-duplex communication.

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Half Duplex telephone
communication
L

Earphon Earphon
e e

□ Signal travels in both directions but not

□ simultaneously. An entity either sends or receives
□ signal.
□ Speech of A is heard by B as well as A’s own
□ earphone. Audio signal heard by self earphone is
□ called sidetone. No sidetone: User tends to shout.
Desirable
□ Too much sidetone: User tends to speak in too low
.
ESS
volume. Here entire speech intensity is heard as
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 Half Duplex circuit Aditya
withCollege of Engineering and Technology
Sidetone
 The figure gives a circuit where a small level of
side tone and the full speech signal from the other
party are coupled to the receiver.
 The impedance Zb is chosen to be more or less
equal to the impedance seen by the circuit to the
right of section AA′.
 Consequently, with proper side tone coupling the
speech signal from the microphone M divides more
or less equally in the two windings P and Q. Since
the signals in these two windings are in the opposite
direction, only a small induced voltage appears in
the receiver circuit providing the side tone.
 When a signal is received from the other entity, it
travels in the same direction in both windings P and
Q, inducing a large signal in the receiver circuit.

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Half Duplex circuit with Sidetone

□ At Transmitter:
□ ZL: Receiver load
□ ZB: Balancing load.
□ Earphone connected through L1 L2 L3.
□ Transmitter current I2 reaches receiver.
□ L1 very slightly different from L2 .
□ Transmitter currents I1 and I2 in opposite direction.
□ Currents divide in L1 and L2 such that very small
resultant field results.
□ Very small current induces in earpiece L3.
□ Small sidetone.
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Half Duplex circuit with Sidetone

□ At Receiver:
□ Received current flows through L1
and L2 in same direction inducing
additive field.
□ Additive signal induces in L3.
□ Strong received signal in
earphone.

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BASICS OF A SWITCHING SYSTEM

 A major component of a switching system or an exchange is the set of input and output circuits called
inlets and outlets, respectively. The primary function of a switching system is to establish an electrical
path between a given inlet-outlet pair.
 The hardware used for establishing such a connection is called the switching matrix or the
switching fabric. Sometimes, the term switching network is used to denote the switching
hardware inside the switching system.

 Figure (a) shows a model of a switch with N inlets and M outlets. When N = M, the switch is called a
symmetric switch.
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BASICS OF A SWITCHING SYSTEM

 The inlets/outlets of a switch may be connected to local subscriber lines or to trunks from/to other exchanges as shown
in Figure (b).

 The model of a switch shown here is the most general one and supports four different types of connections:

1. Local call connection between two subscribers in the system (Supported by folded switch)

2. Outgoing call connection between a subscriber and an outgoing trunk

3. Incoming call connection between an incoming trunk and a local subscriber

4. Transit call connection between an incoming trunk and an outgoing trunk. (Supported by non-folded switch)
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BASICS OF A SWITCHING SYSTEM

 When all the inlets/outlets are connected to the subscriber lines, the logical
connection appears as shown in Figure (c). In this case, the output lines are
folded back to the input and hence the switch is called a folded
switch.

 In a folded switch with N subscribers,

there can be a maximum of only N/2
simultaneous calls or information
interchanges. The switch may be
designed to provide N/2 simultaneous
switching paths, in which case the
switch is said to be nonblocking.

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BASICS OF A SWITCHING SYSTEM

 In a switch, all the inlet/outlet connections may be used for interexchange
transmission. In such a case, the exchange does not support local subscribers
and is called a transit exchange. A switch of this kind is shown in
Figure (d) and is called a non-folded switch.

 In a nonfolded switch with N inlets

and N outlets, N simultaneous
information transfers are possible.
Consequently, for a nonfolded switch
to be nonblocking, the switch should
support N simultaneous switching
paths.

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BASICS OF A SWITCHING SYSTEM

 In a nonblocking switch, as long as a called subscriber is free, a calling subscriber
will always be able to establish a connection to the called subscriber. In other
words, a subscriber will not be denied a connection for want of switching
resources.
 But, in general, it rarely happens that all the possible conversations take place
simultaneously. It may, therefore, be economical to design a switch that has as
many simultaneous switching paths as the average number of conversations
expected.
 In this case, it may occasionally happen that when a subscriber requests a
connection, there are no switching paths free in the switch, and hence he is denied
connection. In such an event, the subscriber is said to be blocked, and the switch is
called a blocking switch.
 The maximum number of simultaneous switching paths that can be established in a
switch is called its switching capacity.

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BASICS OF A SWITCHING SYSTEM

 The probability that a user may get blocked is called blocking probability. Whether a switch is
blocking or nonblocking, it must provide full connectivity or full availability, in the sense that
any of the N inlets can be connected to any of the N outlets in the switch.

 All the switching exchanges are designed to meet an estimated maximum average simultaneous traffic,
usually known as busy hour traffic.

 Past records of the telephone traffic indicate that even in a busy exchange, not more than 20−30 per cent of
the subscribers are active at the same time. Hence, switching systems are designed such that all the
resources in a system are treated as common resources and the required resources are allocated to a
conversation as long as it lasts.

 The quantum of common resources is determined based on the estimated busy hour traffic. When the
traffic exceeds the limit to which the switching system is designed, a subscriber experiences blocking. A
good design generally ensures a low blocking probability.

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BASICS OF A SWITCHING SYSTEM

 The load on a switching resource is measured in terms of the

occupancy of the resource. Such a measure is called the traffic
intensity and is defined as the fraction of the time for which a
resource is occupied in a given period of observation.

 The measure is obviously dimensionless, but is given a unit

known as erlang (E), named after the Danish telephone
engineer, A.K. Erlang, a pioneering contributor to traffic
engineering.
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COMPONENTS OF A SWITCHING SYSTEM

A switching system has

three main components:

1. Switching structure

2. Control subsystem

3. Signalling subsystem

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COMPONENTS OF A SWITCHING SYSTEM
Switching structure
 Switching structure, which is made up of a number of switching elements interconnected in a
particular fashion, is also known as switching matrix or switching fabric.

 When a set of one or more switching elements is turned on, a communication path is established
between an inlet and an outlet.

 The switching structure ensures that there is at least one path between any given inlet/outlet
pair, i.e. full availability is ensured. The structure may be such that there are many alternative
connection paths for a given inlet/outlet pair.

 Such structures provide a certain degree of fault tolerance, i.e. failure of a switching element or
an interconnecting link does not disable an inlet/outlet pair from being connected.

 Early Strowger switches suffered from this disadvantage. Later designs were improved to
provide more than one alternative path.

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COMPONENTS OF A SWITCHING SYSTEM
Control subsystem
 The control subsystem of the switching system is responsible for all happenings within the switching system.
In some switching systems, the control subsystem may be an integral part of the switching matrix itself. Such
systems are known as direct control switching systems. Those systems in which the control subsystem
is outside the switching network are known as common control switching systems.

 Strowger exchanges are usually direct control systems, whereas crossbar and electronic exchanges are
common control systems. All stored program control systems are common control systems. Common control
is also known as indirect control or register control.

 The control actions inside a switch are usually triggered by external events such as a subscriber going off-
hook. In this instance, it is the control subsystem that instructs the signalling subsystem to send out dial tone
on the particular subscriber line.

 When the subscriber dials a number, it is the control subsystem which interprets the digits and selects the
appropriate outlet to which the subscriber inlet needs to be connected. While the switching matrix provides
the switching path, it is the control subsystem that actually turns on the appropriate switching elements and
activates the required interconnecting links to establish the path between the chosen inlet/outlet pair.

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COMPONENTS OF A SWITCHING SYSTEM
Control subsystem

 This, however, is not the case if the switching matrix is self-routing. In this
case of self-routing switching matrices, the control subsystem just presents
the outlet address at the inlet. When a subscriber goes on-hook, signalling the
end of a conversation, it is the control subsystem that initiates necessary
action to turn off the switching elements and release the switching paths.

 The switching matrix does not distinguish between a subscriber line and a
trunk line. It is the job of the control subsystem to distinguish between these
lines and interpret correctly the signalling information received on these lines
or send out correct signalling information on these lines via the signalling
subsystem.

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COMPONENTS OF A SWITCHING SYSTEM
Signalling subsystem
The third main component of the switching system is the signalling subsystem which provides for two main
forms of signalling:
1. Subscriber loop signalling 2.Interexchange signalling

 In the early switching systems, a clear separation between the control subsystem and the signalling
subsystem did not exist. The control functions inside the switch were referred to as intraexchange
or register signalling.

 There is yet another form of signalling known as network wide signalling or end-to-end
signalling. This is essentially a facility provided by the signalling subsystem to allow calling and
called subscribers to exchange signalling information.

 In fact, end-to-end signalling is the basis for computerised voice answering system that we commonly
come across in railway, airline or telephone enquiry services these days. Another form of end-to-end
signalling is line signalling.

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COMPONENTS OF A SWITCHING SYSTEM
Signalling subsystem

 Subscriber loop signalling depends upon the type of telephone instrument used at the subscriber premises.
For example, the signalling requirements of rotary dial telephone, push button tone telephone and digital
telephone are very different and the signalling formats also differ significantly.

 Signalling techniques fall under two major classes: inchannel signalling and common channel
signalling (CCS).

 Inchannel signalling, also known as per trunk signalling, uses the same channel which carries user
voice to pass control signals related to that call.

 In contrast, CCS uses a separate common channel for passing control signals pertaining to a group of trunks or
voice channels.

 CCS is a recent development in telecommunications. The concept of CCS is a powerful one and is the basis for
many value added services provided by modern telecommunication networks.

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COMPONENTS OF A SWITCHING SYSTEM
 Figure 1.11 shows the different elements of a
switching system and their logical
interconnections.
 The subscriber lines are terminated at the
subscriber line interface circuits, and trunks at
the trunk interface circuits.
 There are some service lines used for
maintenance and testing purposes. Junctor
circuits imply a folded connection for the local
subscribers and the service circuits. Line
scanning units sense and obtain signalling
information from the respective lines.
 Distributor units send out signalling
information on the respective lines.
 Operator console permits interaction with the
switching system for maintenance and
administrative purposes. G. Sattibabu, ECE Dept. 30/01/2025
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MANUAL SWITCHING SYSTEM

 With the advent of automatic switching systems, the manual exchanges have almost gone out of use. Today,
operator assistance is required on a routine basis, only to connect the incoming calls at a private automatic
branch exchange (PABX) to the required extension numbers. Even this requirement will cease to exist with the
large scale introduction of what is known as direct inward dialling (DID)

 However, a discussion of the organisation of manual exchanges would help us to understand many of the
principles of a telecommunication switching system.

 In the very early switching systems, the microphone was energised using a battery at the subscriber end. Later,
a battery located at the exchange was used. Accordingly, the exchanges in two categories:

1. Local battery (LB) exchanges 2. Central battery (CB) exchanges.

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MANUAL SWITCHING SYSTEM

 In the LB systems, dry cells were used in subscriber sets to power the
microphone. These cells have limited power output and cannot be used for
signalling over long lines to the exchange.

 Hence, LB subscriber sets were provided with a magnetogenerator. In this

case, a subscriber needed to rotate a handle to generate the required
alternating current to operate indicators at the exchange.
 The use of magneto generator led to the alternative nomenclature magneto-exchange for the
LB systems.

 The necessity to replace dry cells frequently and the cumbersome procedure of rotating the
magnetogenerator led to the development of CB exchanges, where a subscriber set is energised
from a powerful central battery at the exchange.

 Almost all the present day telephone exchanges are CB systems.

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MANUAL SWITCHING SYSTEM
A simple CB system operated by a human being is shown in Figure

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 Aditya College of Engineering and Technology
MANUAL SWITCHING SYSTEM
 The system consists of one or more switchboards manned by operators.

 The subscriber lines are terminated on jacks mounted on the switchboard. There is one jack for every
subscriber line. Associated with each jack is a light indicator to draw the attention of the operator.

 When a subscriber lifts the hand set, the off-hook switch is closed, causing a current to flow through the
handset and the lamp relay coil. The lamp relay operates and the indicator corresponding to the subscriber
lights up.

 The operator establishes contact with the subscriber by connecting the head set to the subscriber line via
the head set key and a plug-ended cord pair.

 The plugs mate with the jacks. To establish contact, a cord is plugged into the subscriber jack and the key corresponding
to the chosen cord is thrown in position to connect the head set.

G. Sattibabu, ECE Dept. 30/01/2025

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 Aditya College of Engineering and Technology
MANUAL SWITCHING SYSTEM
 On being told the number required by the subscriber, the operator verifies whether the called party is free, and
if so, sends out the ringing current to the called subscriber using a plug-ended cord pair.

 The ringing circuit at the subscriber end is usually a bell shown as B in Figure , with a capacitor C, in series.
They always remain connected to the circuit. The capacitor allows the alternating ringing current from the
exchange to pass through the bell but prevents the loop direct current.

 If the called party is busy, the calling subscriber is told about the same. When the called party answers, his
indicator lamp lights up.

 The operator then establishes a connection between the calling and the called party by plugging in the cord pair
to the called party jack.

 In a manual switching system, the operator has full control of a connection. He enables the signalling
systems, performs switching, and releases a connection after a conversation.

G. Sattibabu, ECE Dept. 30/01/2025

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 Aditya College of Engineering and Technology
MANUAL SWITCHING SYSTEM
Single termination switchboards and Multitermination switchboards.

 If there are 200 subscribers terminated on a switchboard, there can be a maximum of 100 simultaneous calls.
In order to support all these calls, the switchboard must contain 100 plug ended cord pairs.

 But a single operator may not be able to handle 100 calls simultaneously. It is, however, rare that all the
subscribers would like to talk simultaneously.

 Assuming that only 20 subscribers (10 calls) will use the system simultaneously, the switchboard needs to be
provided with only 10 plug-ended cord pairs. What happens if more than 20 users want to talk at the same
time? The operator will not have plug-ended cords for establishing the connection and the users are blocked.

 Users may also experience blocking, if the operator is not able to handle more than a certain number of calls
simultaneously even though free plug-ended cord pairs are available.

 In general terms, we may say that a user experiences blocking on account of the non-availability of the
switching circuits or the control system circuits.

G. Sattibabu, ECE Dept. 30/01/2025

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 Aditya College of Engineering and Technology
MANUAL SWITCHING SYSTEM
Single termination switchboards and Multitermination switchboards.

 When the number of subscribers increases, multiple switchboards and

operators are required to handle the traffic. In this case, the subscriber
switchboards at the exchange may be of two types:

1. Single termination switchboards

2. Multitermination switchboards.

 In single termination scheme, a subscriber is terminated on only one

board, whereas in multitermination scheme, he is terminated on more
than one switchboard.
G. Sattibabu, ECE Dept. 30/01/2025
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 Aditya College of Engineering and Technology
MANUAL SWITCHING SYSTEM
Single termination switchboards and Multitermination switchboards.

 In single termination boards, subscribers are split into

groups and connected to different switchboards. Each
switchboard is handled by a separate operator. When a
subscriber wishes to call another in the same group, the
operator concerned establishes the call.
 In order to enable a subscriber belonging to one group to
call a subscriber in another group, transfer lines are
provided between the switchboards as shown in Figure 1.13.
 The number of transfer lines is determined based on the
estimated intergroup traffic. It may be noted that an
intergroup call requires the services of two operators
manning the two respective groups.
Figure 1.13 Single termination boards with transfer jac

G. Sattibabu, ECE Dept. 30/01/2025

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 Aditya College of Engineering and Technology
MANUAL SWITCHING SYSTEM
Single termination switchboards and Multitermination switchboards.

 Every intergroup call requires two operators to establish the call. Consequently, even a small number of
intergroup calls among the switchboards demands that all boards be manned.
 The need for two operators per call is avoided in the multitermination switchboard scheme. Here, every
subscriber is terminated on all the switchboards as shown in Figure 1.14.

G. Sattibabu, ECE Dept. 30/01/2025

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 Aditya College of Engineering and Technology
MANUAL SWITCHING SYSTEM
Single termination switchboards and Multitermination switchboards.

 Such an arrangement has the advantage that a single operator can establish a call between any
two subscribers connected to the system.

 The system, however, has two drawbacks. First, the total number of connections in the
system increases considerably, thereby reducing the reliability of the system.

 Secondly, terminating all the subscribers in all the boards, such that the terminations are
easily accessible to the operators, poses human engineering problems.

 As the number of subscribers increases, typically to a thousand or more, manual switching

becomes impractical and a method of automatic switching, signalling and control becomes
inevitable.

G. Sattibabu, ECE Dept. 30/01/2025

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 Aditya College of Engineering and Technology

Major Telecommunication Networks

 Telecommunication network may be categorised according to coverage of geographical areas

 Towns and cities have high subscriber densities and relatively high traffic per subscriber
network designed for these are known as urban or metropolitan networks

 Rural areas are characterized by low-subscriber densities, just one or two local exchanges are
used, these are served by rural networks

 Long distance or toll or wide area networks acts as backbone networks interconnection
metropolitan and rural networks

 They support intracountry, intercountry and intercontinental communications

 The most tremendous telecommunication network in existence is PSTN (public switched

telephone network) or plain old telephone system (POTS)

G. Sattibabu, ECE Dept. 30/01/2025

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 Aditya College of Engineering and Technology

Major Telecommunication Networks

 There are 400 million telephones and the length of wiring in telephone network is over 12
times the distance between earth and sun

 The growth rate of telephone industry is more that of computer industry in 90’s

 Telecommunication industry is in both private &government or public sector. It is largely

privatised in U.S

 Companies in US that provide communication services to the public are known as common
carriers

 In countries where the telecommunication authority with government known as post telegraph
& telephone (PTT)administration
 In India from Jan 1985, the responsibilities were divided between two departments (DOP)
department if posts deal with mail and (DOT) department of telephone dealing with telephone
and data communication

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 Aditya College of Engineering and Technology

Major Telecommunication Networks

 The coordination between number of different agencies
involved in providing telecommunication services is provided by
ITU i.e. international telecommunication unit an agency of
United Nations

 ITU -T is the successor of The International Telegraph and

Telephone Consultative Committee (CCITT) which is
responsible for organising meetings, providing support services,
and smooth and efficient functioning of
Telecommunication Standardization Bureau (TSB)

 Apart from ITU-T, significant contribution to data network have

come from ISO (International Standards Organisation)

 American National Standards Institute(ANSI), British

Standards Institution (BSI), Association Française de
Normalisation(AFNOR), Bureau of Indian Standards(BIS)
are Members of ISO
G. Sattibabu, ECE Dept. 30/01/2025
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 Aditya College of Engineering and Technology

Major Telecommunication Networks

 ISDN: Integrated Service Digital Network is the first major multiservice

network being planned and implemented all over the world which is capable
of carrying multimedia services like voice, data, video and facsimile.

 The key to ISDN is digitisation of services, transmission, switching and

signalling. once digitised all voice, non-voice signals look alike and a signal
digital network with adequate speed and signalling capabilities support a wide
range of service.

 The large-scale use of computers in ISDN is leading to the concept of

Intelligent networks which are pre-programmed to be adaptive, algorithmic,
resourceful, responsive and intelligent.

G. Sattibabu, ECE Dept. 30/01/2025

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 Aditya College of Engineering and Technology

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G. Sattibabu, ECE Dept. 30/01/2025
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