Logic is the study of how to critically think about

propositions or statements that are either true or false.

Classify each sentence as declarative, imperative,
interrogative, or exclamatory.
1. The principal will visit classes 1.Declarative
starting next week.
2. Ouch! I cut my finger. 2.Exclamatory
3. Turn right at the fourth traffic sign. 3. Imperative
4. Have you heard of the good news? 4. Interrogative
5. Please reserve December 7 for me. 5. Imperative
CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES
1. DECLARATIVE SENTENCE is used to make
statement of fact, wish, intent or feeling.
Example: I wish I could visit my
grandparents this summer.
2. IMPERATIVE SENTENCE is used to state a
command, request, or direction.
Example: Please do not answer in chorus.
CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES
3. INTEROGATIVE SENTENCE is used to ask a
question
Example: Did you prepare for the final
examination?
4. EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE is used to
express strong feelings.
Example: The teacher shouted, “Keep
quiet!”
Which sentence can be answered as either
true or false?
1. Rowena is good in Mathematics.
2. Pass the paper and then leave the room.
3. December 7, 1953 was a Monday.
4. When will you submit your project?
5. 5 + 3 = 8 and 12 – 7 = 5.
PROPOSITION is a declarative sentence that
can be classified as true or false, but not
both.
Imperative, Interrogative and
Exclamatory Sentences are not proposition.
PARADOX is a self-contradictory
proposition. The sentence cannot be
classified as either true or false, so it is not a
proposition.
 “Less is more.”
“This statement is false.”
Decide whether each of the following is a proposition
or is not a proposition.
1. The number 4 is even and less 1. Proposition
than 12.
2. Malolos is the capital of Bulacan. 2. Proposition
3. How old are you? 3. Not proposition
4. Open your eyes. 4. Not proposition
SIMPLE PROPOSITION – a proposition that
conveys one thought with no connecting
words.
COMPOUND PROPOSITION – contains two
or more simple propositions that are put
together using connective words (logical
connectors). Some logical connectors
involving propositions p and/or q may be
expressed as follows:
 not p
p and q
p or q
If p then q
Example: “Rowena is passing in
Mathematics but she is failing in Social
Science.”
OPERATIONS ON PROPOSITIONS or LOGICAL
OPERATORS
1. CONJUNCTION. Two simple propositions
connected using the word and. Words like
‘but’, ‘even though’, ‘yet’ and ‘while’ are also
used to flag conjuctions.
Example: “Today is Wednesday and tomorrow
is Thursday.”
OPERATIONS ON PROPOSITIONS or LOGICAL
OPERATORS
2. DISJUNCTION. Two simple propositions that
are connected using the word or.
Example: “I will pass the Math exam or I will
not be promoted for the next grade level.”
OPERATIONS ON PROPOSITIONS or LOGICAL
OPERATORS
3. CONDITIONAL. Two simple propositions that
are connected using the words if...then.
The statement between the if and then is called
the antecedent of the conditional. The sentence
that follows then is called the consequent.
Example: “If you will recite the poem, then you
will pass the oral examination.”
OPERATIONS ON PROPOSITIONS or LOGICAL
OPERATORS
The example can also be written as:
a.If you will recite the poem, you will pass the oral
examination; or
b.You will pass the oral examination if you will recite
the poem.
In (a), then is omitted but it is understood to be there.
In (b), the two parts are switched around and then was
also omitted.
OPERATIONS ON PROPOSITIONS or LOGICAL
OPERATORS
4. BICONDITIONAL. Conjunction of two
conditional statements where the antecedent
and consequent of the first statement have
been switched in the second statement.
Example: “Two sides of a triangle are
congruent if and only if two angles opposite
them are congruent.”
OPERATIONS ON PROPOSITIONS or LOGICAL
OPERATORS
5. NEGATION. The negation of a given
statement is a statement that is false whenever
the given statement is true, and true whenever
the given statement is false.
The negation can be obtained by inserting
the word not in the given statement or by
prefixing it with phrases such as “It is not the
case that…”
OPERATIONS ON PROPOSITIONS or LOGICAL
OPERATORS
Example: The negation of the statement
“Herbert is good” can be written as:
“Herbert is not good.” or
“It is not the case that Herbert is good.”
Give the negation of the statement:
“Her aunt’s name is Lucia.”
OPERATIONS ON PROPOSITIONS or LOGICAL
OPERATORS
Give the negation of the statement:
“Her aunt’s name is Lucia.”
Answer:
Her aunt’s name is not Lucia.
It is not the case that her aunt’s name is Lucia.
Tell whether each of the following is a
proposition or not a proposition.
1.Today is Monday.
2.Do you love Mathematics?
3.Pause for a while.
4.A quart of milk weighs less than 8 ounces.
Classify each proposition as simple or
compound. Classify each compound
proposition as a negation, conjunction,
disjunction, conditional, or biconditional.
5. My friend took his master’s degree in
Spain.
6. Roses are red, but violets are blue.
7. You are entitled to a 30% discount if you
are a member.
8. Roel was on time, but Tom was late.
9. Either he watches a movie or dines with his
friends.
10. If it is an acute angle, then it is an acute
angle.
1. Proposition
2. Not Proposition
3. Not Proposition
4. Proposition
5. Simple Proposition
6. compound, conjunction
7. compound, conditional
8. compound, conjunction
9. compound, disjunction
10. compound, conditional
Symbols are used to simplify work in logic. If x
and y are the frequently used letters in algebra,
the letters p,q, or r are often used to represent
propositions in logic. The table below shows
the several symbols for connectives, together
with the respective types of compound
proposition.
Example 1
Let p represent the proposition “He has green
thumb” and let q represent the proposition
“He is a senior citizen”.
Convert each compound proposition into
symbols.
a.He has green thumb and he is a senior
citizen.
Answer: p ^ q
Example 1
b. He does not have green thumb or he is not
a senior citizen.
Answer: ~p v ~q
c. It is not the case that he has green thumb or
he is a senior citizen.
Answer: ~(p v q)
Example 1
d. If he has green thumb, then he is not a
senior citizen.
Answer: p ~q
Example 2
Let p represent “Robin can swim” and let q
be “Tom plays the guitar”. Write each symbolic
statement in word.
a.p v q
Answer: Robin can swim or Tom plays the
guitar.
Example 2
Let p represent “Robin can swim” and let q
be “Tom plays the guitar”. Write each symbolic
statement in word.
b. p ^ ~q
Answer: Robin can swim and Tom cannot play
the guitar.
Example 2
Let p represent “Robin can swim” and let q
be “Tom plays the guitar”. Write each symbolic
statement in word.
c. ~(p v q)
Answer: It is not the case that Robin can swim
or Tom plays the guitar.
Example 2
Let p represent “Robin can swim” and let q
be “Tom plays the guitar”. Write each symbolic
statement in word.
d. ~(p ^ q)
Answer: It is not the case that Robin can swim
and Tom plays the guitar.
Example 3
Write the following in symbolic form:
a.“Arnold is a working student (w) or under 25
years old (u), and lives in Manila (l).
Answer: (w v u) ^ l
a.“Arnold is a working student (w), or under 25
years old (u) and lives in Manila (l).
Answer: w v (u ^ l)
Example 4
Let p be the proposition “Mother loves her
son,” and let q be the proposition “Son loves
his mother”.
Write the following in symbols and then in
words.
a.The conjunction of the negations of p and q
Answer: In Symbols: ~p ^ ~q
Example 4
In words: Mother does not love her son and
son does not love his mother.
b. the disjunction of the negations of p and q
Answer: In symbols: ~p v ~q
In words: Mother does not love her son or son
does not love his mother.
Example 4
c. The negation of the conjunction of p and q
Answer: In symbol: ~(p ^ q)
In words: It is not the case that mother loves
her son and son loves his mother.
c. The negation of the disjunction of p and q
Answer: In symbol: ~(p v q)
In words: It is not the case that mother loves
her son or son loves his mother.
Punctuation marks like comma play an
important role in writing propositions in order
to make sense out of them. The following
examples point out this need.
Example 5
Identify each proposition as a conjunction,
disjunction, negation, conditional or
biconditional.
a. Tony is absent or Raquel is absent, and it is
examination day.
Answer: Conjunction
b. Either Jay passed the test, or Lina passed the
test and Jon failed.
Answer: Disjunction
c. It is false that if I go on vacation, then I have
received my 13 month pay.
th

Answer: Negation
d. If my brother pays the rental and I pay the
electricity, then my father pays the tuition fees.
Answer: Conditional
Parentheses in symbolic statements are used to tell
what type of statements are being considered. If
there are no parentheses, we follow the
dominance of connectives. The list below gives the
connectives in their dominant order (from
strongest to the weakest).
1.Biconditional 2. Conditional
3.Disjunction, Conjunction 4. Negation
The conjunction and disjunction are equal value.
Example 6
Identify each symbolic statement as a
conjunction, disjunction, negation, conditional,
or biconditional.
a.p v q r
Answer: Biconditional
b. (p ^ q) v r
Answer: Disjunction
c. ~(p v q)
Answer: Negation
d. ~p ^ q r v s
Answer: Conditional
e. ~(p q ^ r)
Answer: Negation
f. p ^ (q r)
Answer: Conjunction
Example 7
Add parenthesis to form the indicated
compound statement.
1.Conditional: (p ^ ~q) r
Answer: None is needed.
2. Negation: ~p ^ q r
Answer: ~(p ^ q r)
3. Conjunction: p ^ q r
Answer: p ^(q r)
4. Biconditional: p qvr
Answer: None is needed
5. Disjunction: ~p ^ q v r
Answer: (~p ^ q) v r
Example 8
Statement Negation
All items are for sale. Some items are not
for sale.
No items are for sale. Some items are for
sale.
Write the negation of each statement.
1.All bottles have labels.
Answer: Some bottles have no labels.
2. All candidates will get the second chance.
Answer: Some candidates will not be given the
second chance.
Write the negation of each statement.
3. No student in uniform can enter the Internet
café.
Answer: Some students in uniform can enter
the Internet Cafe.
4. Some participants are more active than the
organizers.
Answer: No participants are more active than
the organizer.
Conjunctions
The connective and implies the idea of
“both”. For the conjunction p ^ q to be true,
both p and q must be true. All the four possible
combinations of truth value for the
conjunction p and q are summarized by a table
called truth table.
Table 1
Truth table for the Conjunction p and q (p ^ q)
p q p^q The conjunction p ^ q is
true when p and
T bothT T
q are
T F F true; otherwise, the
F T F conjunction is false.
F F F
Example 1
Let p represent “7>5” and let q represent
“12<0.” Find the truth value of p and q.
Solution:
The statement “7>5” is true. Hence, p is true.
The statement “12<0” is false. Hence, q is false.
The second row of the conjunction truth table
shows that p ^ q is false.
p q p^q
T T T
T p isF trueFand q is false
F T F
F F F
p q

p and q
Disjunctions
If John says that he has been reading or
writing, then he is telling the truth if he has
been reading and not writing. Likewise, he is
telling the truth when he has been writing and
not reading. Also he is telling the truth he he
has been reading and also writing. Table 2
shows the truth table for disjunction. The use
of or in this case is called the inclusive or
(inclusive disjunction)
Table 1 inclusive or
p q pvq One or the other, or both
T T T
Inclusive disjunction is
T F T true unless both
F T T components are false.
F F F
p q

p or q
Example 2
Let p represent “I will clean the kitchen”
Let q represent “I will clean the bathroom”
Find the inclusive disjunction of p and q and
discuss its truth values.
Solution:
The statement, “I will clean the kitchen or I will
clean the bathroom” is the required
disjunction. It will be false only if both
components are false and will be true
otherwise.
Example 3
Let p be “I will pass the math quiz”
Let q be “I will flunk the math quiz” Find
the inclusive disjunction of p and q and discuss
its truth values.

Form the disjunction of p and q and discuss the

truth values.
Solution:
“I will pass the math quiz or I will flunk it” is the
desired disjunction. The statement will on be
true when exactly one of the two components
is true. Otherwise, it will be false. When this is
the case, we shall refer to the or used as the
exclusive or the exclusive disjunction. Its truth
table is given in Table 3.
Exclusive or One or the other, not both
(inclusive disjunction)
Table 3 Truth Table for the
Exclusive Disjunction p or
p q p v q q (p v q)
T T F
T F T Exclusive disjunction is
F T T true when one component
is true and the other is
F F F false.
Note:
Unless otherwise meant or stated, a
disjunction is considered inclusive by default.
Negation
If p is a simple proposition, the P is either
true or false but not both. That is, if P is a true
statement, then its truth value is true and if p
is false, then its truth value is false.
If we negate p and p is true, the ~p must be
false, and if p is false, the ~p must be true. This
type of analysis is shown in Table 4.
Table 4
Truth Table for a Simple
Proposition’s Negation (~)

p ~p
T F
F T
Example 4
Construct a truth table for
a. ~(p ^ q)
Example 4
Construct a truth table for
a. ~(p ^ q)
p q
T T
T F
F T
F F
Example 4
Construct a truth table for
a. ~(p ^ q)
p q p^q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Example 4
Construct a truth table for
a. ~(p ^ q)
Example 4
Construct a truth table for
b. ~(p v q)
Example 4
Construct a truth table for
b. ~(p v q)
p q
T T
T F
F T
F F
Example 4
Construct a truth table for
b. ~(p v q)
p q pvq
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
Example 4
Construct a truth table for
b. ~(p v q)
p q pvq ~(p v q)
T T T F
T F T F
F T T F
F F F T
Example 4
Construct a truth table for
c. ~(p ^ ~q)
Example 4
Construct a truth table for
c. ~(p ^ ~q) p q
T T
T F
F T
F F
Example 4
Construct a truth table for
c. ~(p ^ ~q) p q ~q
T T F
T F T
F T F
F F T
Example 4
Construct a truth table for
c. ~(p ^ ~q) p q ~q p ^ ~q
T T F F
T F T T
F T F F
F F T F
Example 4
Construct a truth table for
c. ~(p ^ ~q) p q ~q p ^ ~q ~(p ^ ~q)
T T F F T
T F T T F
F T F F T
F F T F T
Activity
Construct a truth table for
a.p v ~q
b.~(~p ^ q)
c.q ^ ~(p v q)
Activity
Construct a truth table for
a. p v ~q p q ~q p v ~q
T T F T
T F T T
F T F F
F F T T
Activity
Construct a truth table for
b. ~(~p v q) p q ~p ~p ^ q ~(~p ^ q)
T T F F T
T F F F T
F T T T F
F F T F T
Activity
Construct a truth table for
a. q ^ ~(p v q) p q p v q ~(p v q) q ^ ~(p v q)
T T T F F
T F T F F
F T T F F
F F F T F
Truth Tables for Conditional Statement
(p q)
p q p q p q is false only
T T T when p is true and
T F F q is false,
F T T otherwise it is
F F T true.
Example 1
Construct a truth table for each of the
following:
a. p ~q
b. ~p q
Example 1
a. p ~q
p q ~q p ~q
T T F F
T F T T
F T F T
F F T T
Example 1
b. ~p q
p q ~p ~p q
T T F T
T F F T
F T T T
F F T F
Truth Tables for Biconditional Statement
(p q)
p q p q p q is true when
T T T and only when p
T F F and q have the
F T F same truth value.
F F T
Example 2
Construct a truth table for each of the
following:
a. (p q) (~p q)
b. (p ^ q) (p ~q)
c. (p q) (~p v q)
Example 2
a. (p q) (~p q)
p q ~p p q ~p q (p q) (~p q)

T T F T T T
T F F F T F
F T T T T T
F F T T F F
Example 2
b. (p ^ q) (p ~q)
p q ~q p ^ q p ~q (p ^ q) (p ~q)

T T F T F F
T F T F T F
F T F F T F
F F T F T F
Example 2
c. (p q) (~p v q)
p q ~p p q ~p v q (p q) (~p v q)

T T F T T T
T F F F F T
F T T T T T
F F T T T T
Activity
Construct a truth table for each of the
following:
a. p v (q ~p)
b. (p q) (~p v q)