WILL DISCUSS ABOUT

• Temperature
• Pressure
• Torque
• Angular velocity
• Vibration
• Flow
 MEASUREMENT OF
TEMPERATURE
• Following devices are used for measurement of
temperature
– Resistance thermometers
– Semiconductor thermometers
– Thermistors
– Thermocouples
– Bimetallic thermometers
– Radiation Pyrometers
 RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS
• Common Resistance Temperature Detector or
Resistance Thermometers, employ
– a sensitive element of extremely pure platinum,
copper, or nickel wire

– These elements have a repeatable resistance vs

temperature relationship
• Provides a definite resistance value at each temperature
within its operating range

– widely used within the range -183 to 630°C

 RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS
• Most importantly, the relative change in resistance
(temperature coefficient of resistance) varies only
slightly over the useful range of the sensor

• Platinum was proposed by Sir William Siemens as

an element for a resistance temperature detector
in 1871 since
– It is a noble metal and has the most stable resistance–
temperature relationship over the largest temperature
range
 RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS
• Nickel elements have a limited temperature range
because
– The amount of change in resistance per degree of
change in temperature becomes very non-linear at
temperatures over 572 °F (300 °C)

• Copper has a very linear resistance–temperature

relationship
– However, copper oxidizes at moderate temperatures
and cannot be used over 302 °F (150 °C).
 RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS
• Hence, Platinum is the best metal for Resistance
Temperature Detector due to
– Its very linear resistance–temperature relationship,
highly repeatable over a wide temperature range
– Chemical inertness(not generally reactive)

• These unique properties of platinum makes it the

material of choice for temperature standards over
the range of −270 °C to 960 °C
• It is used in the sensors that define the
International Temperature Standard ITS-90 (from .65 K to highest T)
 RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS
• Variation of resistance with temperature for
several commonly used materials are as shown
 RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS
• Relationship between temperature and resistance
of conductors in the temperature range near 0°C
can be calculated from the equation
=
where Rt is the resistance of the conductor at t (°C)
Rrefis the resistance at the reference temperature,
usually 0°C
is the temperature coefficient of resistance
is the difference between operating and reference
temperature
 RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS
• Almost all metallic conductors have a positive
temperature coefficient
– Resistance increase with an increase in temperature
– Carbon and germanium are exceptions
– High value of is desirable in a temperature sensing
element so that
– a substantial change in resistance () occurs for a
relatively small change in temperature
• is measured with a Wheatstone bridge, which is
calibrated to indicate the temperature that caused
the resistance change
RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS
 RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS
• The sensing element of a resistance thermometer
is selected as per intended application
Metal Temperature Accuracy Advantages Disadvantages
Range
Platinum -300°F to + 1500°F ±1°F Relatively slow response
High stability time (15 secs)
Wide operating range Not as linear as copper
thermometers
Copper -325°F to + 250°F ±0.5°F High linearity Limited temperature
High accuracy in range (to 250°F)
ambient temperature
range
High stability
Nickel +32°F to + 150°F ±0.5°F Long life More non linear than
High sensitivity copper
High temperature Limited temperature
coefficient range (to 150°F)
 MEASUREMENT OF
TEMPERATURE
• Semiconductor thermometers
– Semiconductor materials like Germanium with
controlled doping can be used for measurement of
cryogenic temperatures {below 25°K (-248°C)}
• Thermistors
 MEASUREMENT OF
TEMPERATURE
• Thermocouples
– When two dissimilar metals are joined together to form
two junctions, then
– emf is generated within the circuit when temperature
difference is created between the two junctions
 MEASUREMENT OF
TEMPERATURE
• Thermocouples
 MEASUREMENT OF
TEMPERATURE
• Bimetallic Thermometers
– Uses two fundamental principles
• All metals expand or contract with change in temperature and
• Temperature coefficient of expansion is not same for all
metals
• The different rate of expansion/contraction is used to produce
deflections proportional to the temperature change
 MEASUREMENT OF
TEMPERATURE
• Radiation Pyrometers
– When temperatures to be measured are high and
physical contact with the process is impracticable
– Use is made of thermal radiation methods or optical
pyrometers
– Measures radiant heat emitted or reflected by hot
objects
– Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation emitted
as a result of temperature
 MEASUREMENT OF
PRESSURE
• Pressure is defined by
– Force per unit area
– Limit our discussions to fluid systems
• Types of pressure measuring devices
– Mechanical instruments
• Balancing an unknown force with a known force e.g.,
manometer
• Balancing an unknown force through a force produced
on a known area e.g., diaphragms, bellows etc
 MEASUREMENT OF
PRESSURE
– Electro-mechanical instruments
• Employs mechanical means to detect the pressure
• Electrical means to indicate or record the detected
pressure
– Electronic instruments
• It normally depends upon some physical change that
can be detected and indicated or recorded electronically
MEASUREMENT OF
PRESSURE
 MEASUREMENT OF
PRESSURE
• Mechanical methods is used to convert the
applied force or pressure into displacement
• The device which does such function is called
Force Summing Device
• Force summing devices possesses elasticity
– This enables the devices to establish equilibrium with
the applied pressure
– The choice and design of an appropriate summing
device will depend upon the magnitude of the pressure
to be measured
 MEASUREMENT OF
PRESSURE
– Commonly used summing devices are
• Flat or corrugated diaphragms
• Bellows
• Bourdon tubes
• Straight tube
MEASUREMENT OF
PRESSURE
MEASUREMENT OF
PRESSURE
 MEASUREMENT OF
PRESSURE
• Displacement created by a force summing device
is converted into some electrical parameter
• These devices are called secondary transducers
• Various transducers used are
– Resistive, Inductive or Capacitive
– Differential transformers
– Photo-electric
– Piezo-electric
 MEASUREMENT OF
TORQUE
• What is torque?
• A twisting force that tends to cause rotation

• Dynamic measurement of torque transmitted by a

rotating shaft is based upon the
– Angular displacement or twist in the shaft
 MEASUREMENT OF
TORQUE
• This displacement/twist also known as strain is
sensed by the transducer and is measured

• Strain measurements are then interpreted in terms

of torque by proper calibration

• These measurements can be used for

measurement of speed if combined with
appropriate speed measuring device
 MEASUREMENT OF
TORQUE
• Relative angular displacement or twist in the shaft
can be measured by
– Strain Gauge Torque Meters
– Inductive Torque Transducer
– Magnetostrictive Transducers
 STRAIN GAUGE
• Strain gauge is a sensor whose resistance varies
with applied force
• It converts force, pressure, tension, weight, etc.,
into a change in electrical resistance which can
then be measured
STRAIN GAUGE TORQUE METERS
• Two strain gauges are mounted on shaft at an angle of
45°

• Each strain gauge will indicate the corresponding strain

• The strain is measured by electrical means to indicate the
torque
• Multiple strain gauges are used for better accuracies
 INDUCTIVE TORQUE
TRANSDUCER
Coil Shaft

T
Iron Core
Flange A Flange B

• The core moves in and out of the coil according to

relative displacement of the two flanges
 INDUCTIVE TORQUE
TRANSDUCER
• This leads to variation of inductance

• The coil is used as one arm of an a.c. bridge

• Output of the bridge depends upon

– Inductance of the coil
– This in turn depends upon the displacement and
– Displacement depends upon the torque
 MEASUREMENT OF
ANGULAR VELOCITY
• Disadvantage with measuring linear velocity
arises because a fixed reference must always be
used
• What happens if the moving object has large
distances to cover?
– Detection becomes impossible
• Hence, angular velocity transducers are used
• In many cases the only way to measure linear
velocity is to measure angular velocity
– Speedometer uses wheel rotational speed as a
 MEASUREMENT OF
ANGULAR VELOCITY
• Angular velocity is measured with Tachometers
– Electrical
– Mechanical
• Electrical tachometers are preferred over
mechanical tachometers for all applications
because of the associated advantages
• Electromagnetic Tachometer
– D.C. Tachometer Generators
– A.C. Tachometer Generators
• Drag Cup Rotor A.C. Tachogenerator
 DC TACHOMETER GENERATORS

• Permanent magnet, armature, commutator,

brushes, variable resistor, and the moving coil
voltmeter are the main parts of the DC tachometer
generator
• Consists of a small armature coupled to the
machine whose speed is to be measured
• Armature revolves in the field of permanent magnet
 DC TACHOMETER GENERATORS

• The emf (voltage) generated is proportional to the

flux and speed
• Since the flux of the permanent magnet is constant,
the voltage generated is proportional to the speed
• The commutator converts the alternating current of
the armature coil to the direct current with the help
of the brushes
DC TACHOMETER GENERATORS

• The moving coil voltmeter measures the induced

emf which is calibrated to indicate the speed
• The resistance is connected in series with the
voltmeter for controlling the heavy current of the
armature
• The polarity of the output voltage indicates the
direction of rotation
AC TACHOMETER GENERATORS

• The DC tachometer generator uses the commutator

and brushes which have many disadvantages
• The AC tachometer has stationary armature and
rotating magnetic field
– Thus, the commutator and brushes are absent in AC
tachometer generator
 AC TACHOMETER GENERATORS

• The rotating magnetic field induces emf in the

stationary coil of the stator
• Speed of rotation is proportional to both amplitude
and frequency of the emf generated
– Thus, either amplitude or frequency of the induced
voltage may be used to measure the rotational speed
AC TACHOMETER GENERATORS

• Amplitude of the induced voltage is considered for

measuring the speed of the rotor in the circuit
• The induced voltages are rectified and then passed
through the capacitor filter for smoothening the
ripples of rectified voltages
• The same is measured with a permanent magnet
moving coil instrument